A National Study of Participation Levels of African Americans in the Profession of Blindness Service J. Martin Giesen, Ph.D., Principal Investigator Mississippi State University Lynn W. McBroom, Ph.D., Senior Research Scientist Mississippi State University Earl M. Gooding, Ph.D., Director Center for Urban and Rural Research Alabama A&M University James Hicks, Ed.D., Vice President Academic Affairs Alabama A&M University Suzanne Ewing, B.A., Research Assistant I Mississippi State University Chuck Robertson, B.A. Graduate Research Assistant Mississippi State University August, 1996 Copyright þ 1996 This monograph is the result of a research program conducted jointly by Alabama A&M University and the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision at Mississippi State University. Development of this document was supported in part by the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision Grant H133B10003 from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, Department of Education, Washington, DC. Opinions expressed in this document are not necessarily those of the granting agency. Mississippi State University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision P. O. Drawer 6189 Mississippi State, MS 39762 Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, age, national origin, veteran status, or disability. Abstract An imbalance exists in the rehabilitation system for African Americans. This national study investigated the level of participation by African Americans in vocational rehabilitation (VR) services to persons who are visually impaired. It was found that African Americans are substantially under-represented in the service provider ranks, yet over-represented as clients. This national study also investigated what administrators of state VR programs serving persons with visual impairments believe causes this imbalanced situation. All results were quite consistent with previous research based on data collected from Alabama and Mississippi (Giesen et al., 1995). An agency data form and a survey instrument containing 43 rating questions and demographic questions was sent to all administrators of VR programs serving people with visual impairments in the U.S. Eighteen responses were received. In addition, in-depth interviews were conducted with 32 administrators. The study was a joint project between the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center (RRTC) on Blindness and Low Vision at Mississippi State University and Alabama A&M University (A&M). Data analysis included consideration of the level of participation by Blacks as service providers and as clients, both nationally and regionally. Survey data were investigated descriptively and comparative of differences between Black and White respondents. Results were organized around five themes: (a) endorsement of efforts to increase participation of Blacks, (b) differences in attractiveness of the blindness services profession, (c) factors affecting Black participation in the profession of blindness services, (d) future prospects for Black participants in the profession of blindness services, and (e) differences in perceptions of advantages and participation in blindness services as part of society. Open-ended responses and personal interviews with professionals were also summarized. From the perspective of the state administrators who responded, it was agreed that greater awareness, attractiveness, and participation in blindness services by Blacks could be accomplished by more career information and publicity, targeted recruiting, more training programs at historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs), more Blacks in the field, and increased college degree training for Blacks. Black administrators tended to agree more than White administrators that a blindness career is more popular, attractive, and more sought after by Whites; Blacks desire blindness careers less; Whites more often learn about and have advisors and mentors in blindness fields; and Blacks do not have enough training. There were no administrator race differences for factors regarding moving for a job, Blacks avoiding blindness jobs, or differences in relevant social skills. Black administrators tended to agree more than White administrators that job stability and few new jobs hold down career participation by Blacks, and increased financial assistance for academic training will increase Black participation. White administrators tended to agree more than Blacks that Blacks will get their share of new employment opportunities, professionals want to increase participation and opportunities for Blacks, more financial assistance for training exists for Blacks, and "government policies" have increased Black participation. Data on levels of participation of African Americans were presented by absolute percentages and by a participation ratio which considered the participation percentage relative to the percentage of African Americans in the population. Nationally, in blindness VR, African Americans comprised 5% of service providers and 18% of clients. Expressed as a participation ratio relative to the population percentage, African Americans were at 41% of proportional representation as service providers and at 132%, as clients in blindness VR. Recommendations were made for increasing Black professional employees, including increased awareness and publicity in educational systems, and specific educational/degree programs with financial incentives for Black students. Directions for future research were also discussed. Table of Contents INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Prevalence of Blindness Among African Americans. . . . . . . . 1 Geography, Economics, and Health Factors in Visual Impairment. 2 Minorities, Job/Career Preparation, and Rehabilitation Patterns 3 Minorities in U.S. and Selected State Populations, and in the Blindness Vocational Rehabilitation Service System 3 1970s data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1990s data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Agency data on service and employment. . . . . . . . . . 5 Attitudes and Perceptions Regarding African Americans in Blindness Services 7 Research Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Specific Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Agency data form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Survey instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Structured interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Project Advisory Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 RESULTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Agency National Data on Service and Employment. . . . . . . . . . . 11 Population percentages of African Americans. . . . . . . 11 African Americans as employees in blindness services . . 11 African Americans as clients in blindness rehabilitation 11 Vacancies for professional staff serving persons who are blind or visually impaired 12 Extent of representation of African Americans in blindness services 12 Results from Survey Instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Survey Results: Administrator Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Summary of Administrators' Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Recruitment efforts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Recruitment incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Recruitment barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Barriers in the personnel system . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Service delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Survey Results: Core Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Theme 1: Endorsement of Efforts to Increase Participation of Blacks 18 Theme 2: Differences in Attractiveness of the Blindness Services Profession 19 Theme 3: Factors Affecting Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services 22 Theme 4: Future Prospects for Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services 26 Theme 5: Differences in Perceptions of Advantages and Participation in Blindness Services as Part of Society 27 Demographic Characteristics of Administrators. . . . . . . . . 32 Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Gender and race. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Job category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Length of employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Educational achievement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Results from Open-Ended Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Attracting Black professionals: Current efforts. . . . . 33 Making careers in blindness services more visible and attractive 33 Increasing participation of Blacks in training programs. 33 Recruiting, hiring practices, real job opportunities . . 33 Results from the National Interview of State Agency Administrators. 34 Preliminary Evaluation: Black and White Administrators . . . . 34 Summary and Evaluation of Administrator Responses. . . . . . . 36 Summary Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 From Agency Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 From Administrator Ratings and Core Survey . . . . . . . . . . 39 Suggestions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Core survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 From Personal Interviews of Administrators . . . . . . . . . . 42 Concluding Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Appendix A: Agency Data Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 Appendix B: Survey Instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Percentages and Means for Alabama and Mississippi Administrators and National Sample of Administrators Answering Administrator Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Table 2. Theme 1: Endorsement of Efforts to Increase Participation of Blacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Table 3. Theme 2: Differences in Attractiveness of the Blindness Services Profession. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Table 4. Theme 3: Factors Affecting Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Table 5. Theme 4: Future Prospects for Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Table 6. Theme 5: Differences in Perceptions of Advantages and Participation in Blindness Services as Part of Society . . . . . . . . . .30 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Proportion of African Americans: U.S. Population and Blindness VR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Figure 2: African Americans in U.S and MS/AL Populations. . . . . . . . . . 4 Figure 3: African Americans in State, as Clients, and as Providers: Alabama and Mississippi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Figure 4: African American Participation in Blindness Vocational Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Figure 5: Endorsement of Efforts to Increase Participation of Blacks: National Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Figure 6: Differences in Attractiveness of Blindness Services Profession: National Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Figure 7: Factors Affecting Black Participation in Blindness Services: National Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Figure 8: Future Prospects for Black Participation in Blindness Services: National Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Figure 9: Differences in Perceptions of Blindness Services as Part of Society: National Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Figure 10: Participation Ratio of African Americans in Blindness Vocational Rehabilitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 INTRODUCTION African Americans and other members of minority groups are substantially under-represented in the professional and occupational ranks of rehabilitation service providers for persons who are blind or visually impaired. Since African Americans are proportionally over-represented as clients and consumers of rehabilitation services for persons with blindness (Kirchner, 1985), this situation is certainly incongruous. In addition, African Americans suffer a greater incidence of disability and other conditions which can lead to blindness and visual impairments, particularly attributable to level of health care access (Kirchner, 1985; Walker, Akpati, Roberts, Palmer, & Newson, 1986). This situation may be exacerbated by the expected preference of minority consumers to interact with and to receive services from providers of similar minority status. It has been found that this imbalanced situation exists in Alabama and Mississippi (Giesen et al., 1995). The central issues addressed by this research explore the phenomenon on a national scale. The questions addressed include whether the imbalanced situation exists on a national scale, why this imbalanced situation exists, and what factors or barriers have led to the low level of participation of African Americans in the profession of service delivery to persons who are blind or visually impaired. The reasons and barriers may span attitudinal, informational, social, historical, political, economic, geographic, environmental, or interactions of any of these factors. It is assumed that once the reasons for low participation of African Americans are identified, directions for programs and activities can be established to improve the existing imbalanced situation. Literature Review Prevalence of Blindness Among African Americans It is estimated that African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans make up 17% of the U.S. population with African Americans comprising 13% (and 12% African American when Hispanics are excluded) (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1995). At first glance, these numbers may appear relatively small. However, researchers have shown that the prevalence of visual impairments among these minority groups is much higher than among the White majority (Kirchner, 1985; Kirchner & Peterson, 1981). One estimate indicates there are approximately 3 million persons who are visually impaired (Tielsch, Sommer, Witt, Katz, & Royall, 1990). Of these, ethnic minorities account for one third of the visually impaired population (National Center for Health Statistics, 1977). African Americans report blindness or visual impairments 3 times more often than Whites (Kirchner, 1985; National Center for Health Statistics, 1977; Walker et al., 1986). Other studies also support very similar prevalence figures for these minority groups (Kahn & Moorehead, 1973; National Center for Health Statistics, 1977; National Center for Health Statistics and National Center for Health Service Research, 1977). Kirchner (1985) reported that differences in rates of visual impairments between non-Whites and Whites were greatest in the working age populations (ages 16-64). Examining only members of the labor force, 41% of Blacks with disabilities earned below poverty incomes (Bowe, 1992). Blacks in the labor force have less disposable income, are less likely to be covered by health care plans, and tend to avoid costly medical care. As a result, they are less likely to seek medical care for treatable conditions. According to the United Way of America (1987), visual impairments among minorities increased during the 1980s and are predicted to increase further into the 1990s. This finding is also supported by Asbury, Walker, Maholmes, Rackley, and White (1991); and Bowe (1985). Other factors influence the occurrence of visual impairments. The geographic distribution of minority populations, regional economic conditions, and public health concerns are such factors. Geography, Economics, and Health Factors in Visual Impairment The population distribution of persons with visual impairments can be specified geographically. The majority of African Americans with visual impairments (53%) reside in the South compared to 33% of Whites. The number of Blacks with visual impairments tends to be highest in central cities and nonfarm communities (80%) and lowest in metropolitan suburbs and farm communities. Overall, 78% of the disabled African American population live in cities; 48% fall below the official poverty line (Asbury et al., 1991; Bowe, 1985; Kirchner, 1985). Poverty may be an important consideration in the etiology of visual impairment among African Americans. Thornhill and HoSong (1988) speculated that visual impairments and other physical impairments are often perpetuated as well as aggravated by poverty. Another contributing cause for increased prevalence of visual impairments among working age African Americans could be employment in occupations which are more likely to be physically demanding. It has been noted that the incidence and prevalence of blindness is higher among Blacks than among Whites. This higher rate may be due to socioeconomic factors which affect the availability of health care for African Americans, particularly during prenatal development and early childhood. Severe disabilities may emerge from the lack of early intervention and treatment of less severe medical conditions. There are also particular visual disorders and genetic predispositions associated with visual disorders (e.g., sickle-cell anemia, hypertension, diabetes) that are found to occur at higher rates among Black Americans than among White Americans (Bowe, 1992). Minority group membership in combination with blindness can have a profound effect on individuals. It can affect opportunities for education, training, employment, and participation in rehabilitation. Minorities, Job/Career Preparation, and Rehabilitation Patterns Except for vocational school training programs, Whites receive various types of training more often than African Americans or Hispanics; all groups receive the same amount of vocational school training. Occupational status after completion of any type training, reflects the general overall labor force as indicated by educational levels and ethnic composition. For example, African Americans (37%) are more likely to be employed in service jobs than Hispanics (28%) or Whites (21%). Hispanics (19%) are more often in agricultural jobs compared to African Americans (6%) or Whites (4%). Whites (23%) are more often found in professional, technical, or managerial jobs than African Americans (13%) or Hispanics (8%) (Kirchner & Peterson, 1981). The length of time that clients remain on rehabilitation rolls also varies across ethnic groups with 27% of Whites on the roll for 2 or more years compared to 22% of African Americans and 20% of Hispanics (Kirchner & Peterson, 1981). Minorities in U.S. and Selected State Populations, and in the Blindness Vocational Rehabilitation Service System 1970s data. According to prevalence and VR statistics, people who need blindness services come disproportionately from minority groups. Based on Kirchner and Peterson's (1981) report of a 1971-72 data sample, the ethnic breakdown of the U.S. population was 83% White (not Hispanic), 11% Black (not Hispanic), 5% Hispanic, and 1% "Other". In terms of those who applied for blindness VR services during the same time period, 66% were White, 21% were Black, 9% were Hispanic, and 4% were Other. Blacks represented a higher percentage of blindness VR clients (21%) than their proportion in the general population (11%). For additional comparisons, see Figure 1. There were more Whites in the general population (83%) than in blindness VR (66%). Among applicants for blindness VR services, 30% of Whites and 25% of African Americans were legally blind, suggesting that Blacks may have more visual problems, but not necessarily more severe visual impairments. The main conclusion from these data is that African Americans are proportionately over-represented as clients of blindness VR. 1990s data. More recent data from the 1990 census indicated that African Americans comprise 12%, and White plus "Other" subgroups comprise 88% of the U.S. population. In Alabama and Mississippi, 29% were African American and 71% were White and Other (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992a, 1992b). For Americans age 40 and older, 9% were African Americans and 91% were White and Other. For the same age group in Alabama and Mississippi, 23% were African American and 77% were White and Other (Prevent Blindness America, 1994) (Figure 2). Insert Figures 1 and 2 about here. In terms of percentages of persons in the U.S. who are legally blind or visually impaired over age 40, the national average rate was 3%. The rate was 5% for Blacks and 3% for Whites and Others. For people in Alabama and Mississippi who are blind and visually impaired and over the age of 40, the average rate was 4% (6% Blacks and 3% Whites and Others) (Prevent Blindness America, 1994). These data indicate: (a) there is a substantially higher proportion of African Americans in Alabama and Mississippi than the national average proportion; (b) the same trend is true for Americans age 40 and older, although the proportions for Blacks are somewhat reduced; (c) the percentage of persons age 40 and over who are blind or visually impaired is greater for Blacks than for Whites and Others; and (d) the rate of blindness and visual impairment is higher in Alabama and Mississippi for Blacks than the national rate, although this is not true for Whites and Others. Agency data on service and employment. A recent study (Giesen et al., 1995) examined agency service and employment data, and surveyed agency personnel regarding attitudes and perceptions of the level of employment of Blacks in blindness VR services in Alabama and Mississippi. Actual frequency counts were obtained of people served with visual impairments, minority individuals with visual impairments, and staff vacancies in state agencies during the 1990, 1991, and 1992 fiscal years. Results of this records-based dataset indicated that an average of 1,948 persons with visual impairments were served annually in Alabama and Mississippi combined. Of this group, 34% were Black; the remainder were White or Other (the Other minority classification amounted to less than one half of 1%). The average number of blindness VR staff vacancies per year for the two states was 3 positions. These staff vacancies occurred in administrative or professional service delivery ranks. The breakdowns for clients and employees by race, and employees by race and position type indicated that clients of VR agencies serving persons who are blind were approximately 66% White and 34% Black. There were a total of 116 administrative and professional service delivery employees in state VR agencies serving clients who are blind in Alabama and Mississippi (support staff were not included). There were 15 White and 2 Black administrators, and 86 White and 13 Black service delivery professionals. On a percentage basis, African Americans comprised 12% of administrators and 13% of service delivery professionals. The combined staff total averaged 13% African American (Figure 3). In Alabama and Mississippi there was a greater proportion of African Americans who were clients than who were employees in blindness services. Approximately 1 in 3 clients was African American, while about 1 in 8 employees was African American. Thus, the proportion of African American clients was about 2 « times greater than the proportion of African Americans who were blindness services employees. These data clearly indicate that Blacks are under-represented as service providers compared to their over-representation as service recipients in these states. Insert Figure 3 about here. Attitudes and Perceptions Regarding African Americans in Blindness Services In a survey of consumers of blindness services, respondents indicated that a close personal relationship between a service provider and client was extremely important (Uslan, Hill, & Peck, 1989). This suggests that an effort to recruit specialists from racial and ethnic minorities is necessary to provide more effective programs that address cultural diversities, including language differences. While general attempts have been made to reach specific minority groups and to improve the services offered to those groups (Ruiz, 1983), significant improvements have not occurred. Minority groups are not receiving services according to their needs, as evidenced by their continued high incidence of visual impairments. In Giesen et al. (1995), administrators and professional service delivery employees rated a number of statements in terms of their level of agreement or disagreement. The researchers discovered that there was considerable agreement about what would increase Black participation in blindness services. These issues were summarized under increase information, dissemination, and publicity; and develop more training programs, particularly at HBCUs. These conclusions from survey ratings were highly consistent with other parts of the multiphase study, including write-in survey responses and with interview results. Ratings indicated that there were substantial Black/White differences in the perceptions of attractiveness of working in blindness services. In general, the view was that Whites hold advantages in hearing about, seeking, being prepared for, getting, holding, and advancing in blindness services jobs. These results were also generally consistent with write-in and interview responses. Ratings also indicated that there were racial differences in perceptions about the impact of job stability and lack of new jobs on the low level of career participation by Blacks, and the impact of increased financial assistance for training on Black participation. There were also differences in perceptions regarding Blacks getting their fair share of new jobs and the impact of "government policies" on participation by Blacks. Lastly, it was the view that Blacks have been at a disadvantage "across the board" in employment in blindness services, including past discrimination; less awareness; and less opportunity for training, employment, and advancement. Taken together, there was a strong degree of consistency between the conclusions from the survey ratings, the write-in portions, and interview responses. These sources converged on several conclusions and recommendations for increasing career participation in blindness services by African Americans: (a) Increase awareness by strategic publicity and dissemination of information on careers, training programs in blindness services, and information on blindness as a disability; (b) increase attractiveness by increasing salaries, benefits, and financial assistance for education and training; (c) increase the number and preparedness of potential employees by developing more and different training programs, particularly at HBCUs, and by increasing student financial assistance; and (d) enhance recruiting, hiring, and job opportunities by strategic recruiting, advocacy of preparedness, employer flexibility, and commitment to eliminate discrimination. An increase in the number of service providers with diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds could result in greater outreach into minority communities. Such efforts may reach more people who are not currently being served by the rehabilitation system. These service providers might also have an increased impact on some of the root causes of the high incidence of blindness and visual impairment among minority populations. Research Questions From the above review and in order to investigate the perceptions and factors affecting national participation by African Americans, the following research questions were investigated: 1. What are the barriers to participation by African Americans in the blindness profession as reviewed by state agency administrators across the U.S. in services to persons who are blind? 2. How can these barriers be identified, described, and classified; and how can perspectives be compared historically and with specific states? 3. What differences in perceptions on these issues exist? 4. What similarities or differences exist between state patterns and national patterns of participation of African Americans in blindness services? 5. What recommendations can be made to help change or ameliorate barriers and increase participation by African Americans in the profession of services to persons who are blind? METHOD Overview Surveys and agency data forms were sent to all state directors and administrators of VR programs serving persons who are blind to determine the factors and barriers which affect the level of participation by African Americans in blindness service professions. The surveys were the same as those used in a previous study (Giesen et al., 1995). Subjects Participants were state directors or state agency administrators of VR agencies serving persons who are visually impaired in all states (excluding Hawaii) who responded to the survey request. Procedures Specific Procedure Approvals were obtained from the National Council of State Agencies for the Blind (NCSAB) and from the Council of State Administrators of Vocational Rehabilitation (CSAVR). CSAVR gave the research project an APP/A rating and urged directors to respond. Each administrator was sent a survey packet containing (a) the agency data form and (b) the survey instrument containing 43 rating questions, questions for write-in responses, plus "demographic" questions. Follow-up reminder postcards were also used. The cover letter indicated that each respondent might be contacted for an interview by co-investigators at A&M. Instruments Agency data form. In order to obtain actual frequency counts of people served who are blind or visually impaired and professional staff, a special data questionnaire was developed (Appendix A). This data form was to be completed by the agency contact person in each state. This was a one page form requesting the number of individuals employed by the agency who serve blind and visually impaired clients, how many of these were African American, and the total number of clients served who were blind or visually impaired in the last 3 available fiscal years. The form also requested a breakdown of numbers served by race, and the number of blindness services professional staff vacancies by year for the last 3 fiscal years. Survey instrument. The survey instrument was the administrator version of the instrument used in a previous study in this series (Giesen et al., 1995). The instrument contained several global questions for agency administrators, a core set of 43 rating questions employing a 6-point Likert-type scale, several open-ended questions for written comments, and a section requesting demographic information on the respondent (Appendix B). Structured interview. These questions related to the themes and issues raised in the survey instrument and were ordered to guide the respondent through the issues of focus while permitting freedom of response. Co-researchers at A&M, both of whom were experienced interviewers, conducted structured interviews in person or by telephone. Project Advisory Council This research project employed a council of consumers and constituents who served as part of the research team. The Council provided recommendations and suggestions for all phases of project activity to ensure that the Consumer Oriented Research and Dissemination (CORD) philosophy permeated all project activities. This was accomplished by an Advisory Council Meeting held early in the project period where the research aims, instruments, procedures, etc. were reviewed and modified by the Council and research staffs at A&M and MSU. Since this study was part of a longer research program, the yearly Advisory Council Meetings provided sequential opportunities to infuse Council input and recommendations for interpretations, conclusions, recommendations, and dissemination of previous years' projects, as well as input at the beginning of current year projects. The principal investigators and research staff on the project wish to express our sincere thanks to members of the Council. Council members were as follows: Ms. Judyette Dean, Elementary Educator, Huntsville, Alabama. Ms. Dean is African American and visually impaired. Mr. Carter Gables, Volunteer Service Officer, Mississippi Blinded Veterans Association, Jackson, Mississippi. Mr. Gables is visually impaired. Mr. Byrom Goodwin, Private Rehabilitation Consultant, Huntsville, Alabama. Mr. Goodwin is Native American. Mr. Robert Kelly, Facility Manager in the Business Enterprise Program, Huntsville, Alabama. Mr. Kelly is African American and visually impaired. Dr. Wayne Mulky, Director, Regional Continuing Education Program, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee. Ms. Betty Thompson, VR counselor and former Director of the Office of Vocational Rehabilitation of the Blind, Jackson, Mississippi. Ms. Thompson is African American. RESULTS Several sources of data and information provided results: (a) the agency data form, (b) the survey instrument, and (c) the structured interview. Agency National Data on Service and Employment Even though the agency data form had been pretested and followed a format consistent with federal reporting requirements (RSA R911 form), the data provided by the responding states were not useable. Total numbers served was sometimes reported for new referrals, sometimes for "served," sometimes for "all programs," and sometimes including those served under Title I and Title VII. Complete data on number served broken down by race were either not available or only partially available for 11 of the 15 responding states. Due to these inconsistencies and incompleteness, data provided on number served and number served by race were unusable for analysis. National data from the Rehabilitation Services Administration based on the federal R911 reporting form for 1989, substituted for the unusable data. The total number of blind and visually impaired persons served and the numbers broken down by race category were obtained for each of the responding states. This substitution provided a standard and consistent reporting format. The following analysis is based on employee and vacancy data from the state-completed form and service totals by race from the RSA R911 data. The 15 states responding were suitable for rough regional groupings. These included Northeast (5 states), South (4 states), Midwest (3 states), and West-Central (3 states). Population percentages of African Americans. For comparison purposes, the total number and percentage of African Americans in the general population for each of the reporting states was obtained from state census data. These population totals and total number of African Americans were summed for each of the 15 responding states resulting in 13.3% African Americans. This figure compared favorably to the 13% figure for all 50 states available from the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1995). The similarity of these two estimates is a positive indicator that the 15 responding states provide representative estimates of national statistics. African Americans as employees in blindness services. The total number of persons, and of African Americans reported to be employed in blindness services was summed over the 15 reporting states, and yielded a national estimate of 5.4% African Americans in blindness services. The regional estimates, based on the 15 reporting states, were as follows: Northeast, 2.4%; South, 8.7%; Midwest, 5.6%; and West-Central, 1.9%. African Americans as clients in blindness rehabilitation. Based on national RSA R911 data, of the clients closed in statuses 26 (rehabilitated), 28 (not rehabilitated), and 08 (closed from referral or extended evaluation), 18.4% were African American. The comparison figure based on the 15 states was 17.5% African American. The regional estimates based on the 15 states were: Northeast, 16.5%; South, 28.3%; Midwest, 10.5%; and West-Central, 8.5%. Vacancies for professional staff serving persons who are blind or visually impaired. Based on the 15 reporting states, the average number of vacancies per state per year was 2.7 positions. By region, the average number of positions was: Northeast, 1.4; South, 2.6; Midwest, 3.7; and West-Central, 2.9. Extent of representation of African Americans in blindness services. Previous research has reported that African Americans were over-represented as clients of blindness VR services in Alabama and Mississippi (Giesen et al., 1995). The present study indicates that this same pattern of over-representation was present nationally and in each region represented in the sample. The same pervious research reported that African Americans were under-represented as employees in blindness VR services. The present study also indicates that this same pattern of under-representation was present nationally and in each region represented in the sample. Figure 4 presents the national and regional information on percentage of African Americans in the population, in blindness VR as clients, and in blindness VR as employees. Integer percentages appear above each bar. The highest absolute levels of participation by African Americans in service provisions employment were found in the South and Midwest; the lowest absolute levels, in the Northeast and West-Central regions. The national data showed that African Americans are over-represented as clients and under-represented as service provider employees. The regional data showed the same pattern. This is clearly a national phenomenon. It should also be noted that in regions where the percentage of African Americans is relatively low (Midwest and West-Central), the percentage of African Americans employed as service providers is closer to the percentage of African Americans in the population at large. Insert Figure 4 about here. Results from Survey Instrument Results from the survey instrument are presented in four sections. First, questions for administrators are discussed. Next, attitudinal questions are given followed by demographic characteristics. Finally, a summary of the open-ended write-in questions is provided. A copy of the complete survey instrument is reprinted in Appendix B. Survey results from 18 respondents (36% response rate) were received. This dismal response rate was obtained even with NCSAB and CSAVR approvals. Many state directors were either unable or unwilling to respond. Some completed the agency data form, either wholly or partially, but could not respond to the attitude-related questions. Their reluctance may have been due to sensitivity to race-related issues. Data analysis was descriptive and comparative of differences between Black and White respondents. T-tests were employed to examine differences between Black and White administrator respondents. In general, results indicated a modest number of differences on measures for race of respondent. Results from Alabama and Mississippi (Giesen et al., 1995) were also provided in the tables for additional comparisons. Survey Results: Administrator Questions The survey included 11 questions specifically designed for agency administrators (Table 1). Means are given for items rated on a 6-point Likert-type scale and for other items where appropriate. Percents are indicated for items requiring a "yes" or "no" response, and data are displayed by race. Shading indicates statistically significant differences at the .05 level, except where otherwise noted. Question A (specific efforts to attract Black professionals) was answered "yes" by 77% of the White and 33% of the Black administrators. This difference did not attain statistical significance, but the test had low power due to small sample size and extremely unequal group sizes. The responses on this item are consistent with Theme 3 (defined and discussed later), which, in essence, reflects the view that White respondents believe that "minority inclusion" efforts were being made and were adequate, while Black respondents disagreed. This pattern is consistent with findings from Alabama and Mississippi (Giesen et al., 1995). Table 1. Percentages and Means for Alabama and Mississippi Administrators and National Sample of Administrators Answering Administrator Questions AL and MS National Item Question White N=12 Black N=2 White N=13 Black N=3 A. Have specific efforts been made to attract Black professionals into your organization? (Y/N) 58% 0% 77% 33% B. Are there barriers in the personnel system procedures of your organization that may inhibit targeted recruiting of Blacks? (Y/N) 15% 0% 25% 33% C. Are there changes which can be made in your personnel system procedures, which, in your opinion, would enhance the recruitment of Blacks? (Y/N) 21% 100% 17% 67% D. What is the approximate age range of the professional employees in your organization? 28.2 26.0 37.3 30.3 E. What is the approximate average age of the professional employees in your organization? 40.2 40.0 43.8 45.0 F. We are unable to attract qualified Black professional employees due to our entry level pay scale. 2.86 3.50 1.92 2.67 G. Policy makers in this organization have an active plan to encourage recruitment of qualified Black employees. 4.03 2.00 4.92 3.00 p=.055 H. The lack of Black administrators inhibits efforts at recruiting qualified Black employees. 2.21 5.00 2.77 3.67 I. The personnel system procedures of this organization present barriers to targeted recruiting of Blacks. 1.58 2.89 1.92 2.33 J. More Black professional employees will enhance the quality of service delivery. 3.46 4.50 3.54 4.67 K. More Black professional employees will enhance the quality of service delivery to Black clients. 3.14 5.00 3.85 5.33 Note: Shading indicates significant differences, p<.05, one-tailed test. Items F through K used a 6-point Likert-type scale. With respect to Question B (barriers in the personnel system inhibiting targeted recruiting of Blacks), overall, 25% said "yes". Black and White administrators in the national sample agreed on this item (no significant differences). Question C referred to changes in the personnel system that could enhance recruitment of Blacks. Overall, 31% of the national sample said "yes" to this question. Black administrators were at 67%, while Whites were at 17% (nonsignificant difference). Questions D and E requested employees' age range and average age. There were no differences on either of these items with respect to race. The overall age range was approximately 34 years and the average age was about 44 years for the national sample. Respondents indicated their disagreement/agreement on a 6-point Likert-type scale for Items F through K. Only Item G approached significance (p = .055) and showed a trend for more agreement on the part of White administrators that "policy makers have an active plan to encourage recruitment of qualified Black employees". While there were no significant Black/White administrator differences, the response trends for Black and White administrators followed the same pattern as obtained from professionals in Alabama and Mississippi (Giesen et al., 1995). Summary of Administrators' Questions Excluding items D and E on age range and average age, there are three areas represented in the administrator questions including recruitment issues, barriers in the personnel system, and service delivery. Each of these are considered along with their relevant items. Recruitment efforts. White administrators tended to agree that specific efforts have been made (Item A) and that an active plan exists for recruiting Black professionals (Item G). In contrast, Black administrators tended to agree less on these items. Though not significant, this trend in perceptions suggests a more general theme: White administrators tend to perceive the status quo as more positive, fair, and progressive than do Black administrators. Recruitment incentives. Black and White administrators agreed that entry pay level was not a factor in attracting qualified Black employees (Item F). However, data from survey comments and interviews indicate that entry pay level is a factor in recruiting qualified employees, regardless of race. Recruitment barriers. Administrators disagreed that lack of Black administrators was detrimental to recruiting qualified Black employees (Item H); Black administrators showed a trend toward agreement. Barriers in the personnel system. Both Black and White administrators agreed that the personnel system procedures in their agencies did not pose barriers to targeted recruitment of Black employees (Items B and I). However, Black administrators tended to agree that there were changes that could be made in the system that would enhance recruitment of Blacks (Item C). Service delivery. Black and White administrators did not differ in their midscale rating as to whether more Black professionals would enhance the quality of service delivery in general (Items J and K). However, Black administrators tended to agree that more Black professional employees would enhance the quality of services to Black clients. Summary. "Minority inclusion" efforts encompassed specific efforts and plans for recruiting, and changes in the personnel procedures. Procedural barriers and pay scale were not seen as problems. However, there was ambivalence regarding the lack of Black administrators, and agreement--more strongly among Black administrators--that more Black professional employees would improve service delivery. These national results show almost identical trends overall, and in Black/White differences as those obtained in the Alabama/Mississippi study (Giesen et al., 1995). Survey Results: Core Questions Results from an informal factor analysis conducted in the Alabama/Mississippi study (Giesen et al., 1995) were used to arrange the 43 questions into five general themes. This procedure helped group questions with similar responses that related to the same factor or theme. The themes were labeled: (a) Endorsement of Efforts to Increase Participation of Blacks; (b) Differences in Attractiveness of the Blindness Services Profession; (c) Factors Affecting Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services; (d) Future Prospects for Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services; and (e) Differences in Perceptions of Advantages and Participation in Blindness Services as Part of Society. Each theme is discussed in terms of level of ratings and differences by race. Each section includes a table with the question, mean rating, and any significant differences. Figures are also included in each section to provide graphic displays of means for selected items which characterize each theme. Theme 1: Endorsement of Efforts to Increase Participation of Blacks Items related to this theme showed a consistent and high level of agreement between Black and White respondents (Table 2). Both Black and White respondents strongly agreed that the following factors would increase awareness of career opportunities: provide more information at high school and college career days (Q16), develop more publicity (Q17), target Blacks for recruitment efforts (Q32), and develop degree and training programs at HBCUs (Q25). Respondents also agreed that blindness services will become more attractive to Blacks as more Blacks work in the field (Q6). It was mutually disagreed by Black and White respondents that there are more college training opportunities for Blacks than for Whites (Q19) (Figure 5). Table 2. Theme 1: Endorsement of Efforts to Increase Participation of Blacks AL and MS National Item Question White Black White Black 16. More information on professions in blindness services at high school and college career days will greatly increase awareness of careers in blindness. 5.52 5.83 4.83 5.67 17. More publicity about blindness and/or blindness professionals will increase awareness of career opportunities. 5.51 5.83 5.33 5.67 32. Targeting recruitment efforts specifically toward Blacks will increase the numbers of Black professionals in blindness services. 4.26 5.21 5.15 6.00 25. Development of degree granting programs and training programs in blindness rehabilitation at historically Black colleges and universities will be an excellent way to increase the number of Blacks in blindness services. 4.46 5.47 5.08 6.00 6. As more Blacks work in blindness services, it will become a more attractive career choice for Blacks. 4.00 4.16 4.55 5.00 19. There are more college degree training opportunities in blindness services for Blacks than for Whites. 1.89 1.68 2.00 2.00 In summary, it was agreed that greater awareness, attractiveness, and participation in blindness services by Blacks could be accomplished with more career information and publicity, targeted recruiting, more degree granting programs and training programs at HBCUs, and more Blacks in the blindness field. These responses were very similar to those reported for Alabama and Mississippi by Giesen et al. (1995). Theme 2: Differences in Attractiveness of the Blindness Services Profession Black administrators generally showed a nonsignificant trend to agree relatively more strongly (or disagree less) than White respondents to the items in this theme (Table 3). Black administrators agreed significantly more than White administrators that Whites are more likely to learn about careers in blindness (Q15), and working with persons who are blind is a more popular career choice for Whites than for Blacks (Q2) (p = .076). These administrators had average ratings indicating relative disagreement that working with persons who are blind is a more attractive career choice for Whites (Q3); Blacks do not desire blindness services as a career choice (Q1); Blacks do not have enough training to qualify for existing jobs (Q18); Whites are more likely than Blacks to possess necessary social skills for jobs in blindness services (Q23); and low job status or respect makes it a less attractive career choice for Blacks than for Whites (Q4). Figure 5 on this page Administrators tended to agree that Whites are more likely to have mentors or advisors in the field of blindness (Q13). Other items in this theme indicated neither clear agreement nor disagreement: job seeking (Q11), influence of family and community ties (Q42), moving or relocating (Q43), and history of economic hardship (Q41) (Figure 6). Table 3. Theme 2: Differences in Attractiveness of the Blindness Services Profession AL and MS National Item Question White Black White Black 15. Whites are more likely than Blacks to learn about careers in blindness. 2.82 5.44 3.92 5.67 2. Human service jobs, such as blindness rehabilitation, are popular career choices for Whites. 3.51 4.42 3.09 4.33 p=.076 3. Working with persons who are blind is a more attractive career choice for Whites than for Blacks. 2.29 3.68 2.82 2.00 1. Blacks do not desire blindness services as a career choice. 2.30 2.53 2.90 1.67 18. Blacks do not have enough training to qualify for existing jobs in blindness services. 2.10 2.68 2.55 2.33 23. Whites are more likely than Blacks to possess the social skills necessary for jobs in blindness services. 2.27 1.53 2.00 2.00 4. The low job status or low respect given to employees in blindness services makes it a less attractive career choice for Blacks than for Whites. 2.18 2.95 2.31 2.33 13. Whites are more likely than Blacks to have a mentor or advisor in the field of blindness. 2.88 5.11 3.92 5.33 11. Whites are more likely than Blacks to intentionally seek jobs in blindness services. 2.70 3.89 2.50 4.00 42. Family and community ties prevent Blacks more than Whites from moving or relocating to take jobs in blindness services. 3.02 3.32 3.00 4.00 43. Economic factors prevent Blacks more than Whites from moving or relocating to take jobs in blindness services. 2.94 3.79 3.08 4.00 41. Due to a history of economic hardship, Blacks are less likely than Whites to pursue lower paying jobs such as those in blindness services. 2.98 3.42 2.82 3.50 In summary, Black administrators agreed more than White administrators that Whites are more likely to learn about careers in blindness, and working with persons who are blind is a more popular career choice for Whites. There was relative disagreement by both that a blindness career is more attractive for Whites; Blacks desire blindness careers less; Blacks do not have enough training or social skills for jobs in blindness services; and the low job status of blindness services has more of an impact on Blacks. There was relative agreement that Whites are more likely to have mentors in the field. Average ratings on other items did not indicate clear agreement or disagreement. Theme 3: Factors Affecting Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services Overall average ratings indicated agreement by national administrators that there has been little opportunity for Blacks to either move into (Q35) or move up within the blindness services profession (Q36), and increased financial assistance for college and other training will increase Black participation (Q24, Q21) (Table 4). Black administrators tended to agree more strongly than White administrators that there has been little opportunity for Blacks to move into the field (p = .098) or move up in the profession (p = .085) (Figure 7). Figure 6 about here In summary, administrators agreed that job stability and lack of new jobs have held down career participation by Blacks and that increased financial assistance for academic and other training will increase Black participation. These findings were consistent with Giesen et al. (1995). Table 4. Theme 3: Factors Affecting Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services AL and MS National Item Question White Black White Black 35. There has been little opportunity for Blacks to move into the blindness services profession because there has been almost no turnover or very few new jobs in this field. 2.92 4.26 3.54 5.00 p=.098 36. There has been little opportunity for Blacks to move up within the blindness services profession because there has been almost no turnover or very few new jobs in this field. 3.01 4.06 3.62 5.00 p=.085 24. Financial assistance for Black students for training in blindness services is an excellent way to increase the number of Blacks in blindness services. 3.67 5.00 4.92 5.67 21. Increased financial assistance for college degree training will improve the low career participation rate of Blacks more than Whites. 3.32 4.26 4.18 4.67 insert Figure 7 Theme 4: Future Prospects for Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services There were significant differences between Black and White administrators regarding two items in this theme (Table 5). White respondents agreed significantly more than Blacks that Blacks will get their fair share of new jobs (Q39) and Blacks will have their fare share of advancement opportunities (Q40). Overall ratings indicated agreement that retirements will bring more opportunity for Blacks to enter blindness services (Q38) and blindness professionals would like to increase Black participation in the field (Q31). There was disagreement with the item that suggested financial assistance for degree training was more readily available for Blacks than for Whites (Q20). Midscale rating for Q33 indicated there was no agreement or disagreement to the statement that government policies have increased Black participation in blindness (Figure 8). Table 5. Theme 4: Future Prospects for Black Participation in the Profession of Blindness Services AL and MS National Item Question White Black White Black 39. As new job opportunities occur in the blindness services profession, Blacks will get their fair share of new jobs. 4.71 2.33 4.18 2.33 40. As new job opportunities occur in the blindness services profession, Blacks will have their fair share of opportunities to move up within the profession. 4.76 2.22 4.64 3.00 38. Assuming that many blindness services professionals are approaching retirement, there will be more opportunity for Blacks to enter blindness services in the future. 4.33 3.68 4.17 4.00 31. Blindness service professionals would like to increase Black participation in the field. 4.61 3.26 5.42 4.50 20. Financial assistance for college degree blindness service training is more readily available for Blacks than for Whites. 2.68 1.74 2.82 2.00 33. Government policies have increased Black participation in the blindness profession. 4.05 2.95 3.92 3.33 In summary, White administrators tended to agree more than Black administrators that Blacks will get their share of new employment opportunities and new advancement opportunities. There was general agreement that retirements will provide more employment opportunities, and blindness services professionals want to increase Black participation. Administrators disagreed that more available financial assistance for training is available for Blacks. Again, these findings were consistent with Giesen et al. (1995). Theme 5: Differences in Perceptions of Advantages and Participation in Blindness Services as Part of Society Black administrator respondents tended to agree relatively more strongly (or disagree less) than White administrators on most of the questionnaire items in this theme (Table 6). Black administrators agreed significantly more than White administrators with the following: past discrimination practices in hiring have resulted in few Blacks in the blindness field (Q34); the "good old boy network" keeps Blacks from hearing about (Q29) and getting jobs in blindness (Q30); Whites are paid more than Blacks even with the same amount of training or experience (Q9); White applicants have advantages over equally qualified Black applicants (Q27); better salaries in blindness services will increase the attractiveness of jobs for Blacks more than for Whites (Q7); and Blacks, due to their history and cultural traditions, are motivated to work with persons who are blind (Q5). Respondents were "undecided" (overall average rating about midscale) on the following: lack of opportunities for career advancement discourages Blacks more than Whites (Q37), and certification and accreditation requirements are more of an employment barrier for Blacks than for Whites (Q22). Administrators were also undecided that career guidance programs for Black students in high school and college neglect careers in blindness services (Q14). There was a nonsignificant trend for Black administrators to agree more that Black applicants are not identified by current recruiting methods (Q28), and Whites are more likely Figure 8 Figure 9 than Blacks to find out about jobs through informal channels ("the grapevine") (Q12). It was disagreed that low salaries in blindness are more of a barrier to employment for Blacks than for Whites (Q8), or Blacks are more likely than Whites to stay in contact with friends and acquaintances in the blindness field (Q10). Selected items are displayed graphically in Figure 9. In summary, Black administrators agreed more strongly than White administrators that Blacks are discouraged from participation in the field of blindness rehabilitation by past hiring discrimination, lower likelihood of hearing about or getting jobs, lower pay for the same training or experience, and being less advantaged when equally qualified. Blacks also agreed more strongly that better salaries will increase the attractiveness of blindness profession jobs more for Blacks, and history and culture motivate Blacks to work in a disability field such as blindness. There was uncertainty about the lower likelihood of advancement, certification and accreditation requirements, current recruiting practices, and receipt of career guidance information about blindness services. Both Black and White administrators disagreed, although Blacks disagreed less than Whites, that low salaries are more of a barrier for Blacks, and Blacks are more likely than Whites to "stay in contact" in the field. Table 6. Theme 5: Differences in Perceptions of Advantages and Participation in Blindness Services as Part of Society AL and MS National Item Question White Black White Black 34. There are few Blacks in the blindness services profession because of discrimination in past hiring practices. 2.46 4.58 2.33 4.33 p=.052 29. The "good old boy network" keeps Blacks from hearing about jobs in the blindness profession. 2.19 5.00 2.33 5.00 30. The "good old boy network" keeps Blacks from getting jobs in the blindness profession. 2.01 5.11 1.67 5.00 9. Given the same amount of training and/or experience, Whites are paid more than Blacks in the field of blindness. 1.52 3.95 1.67 4.33 27. White applicants for positions in blindness services have an advantage over equally qualified Black applicants. 1.88 4.53 1.83 4.33 7. Better salaries in blindness services will increase the attractiveness of these jobs for Blacks more so than for Whites. 2.63 3.79 2.50 4.67 5. Blacks, due to their history and cultural traditions, are highly motivated to work with disabled persons such as persons who are blind. 2.74 2.68 2.44 4.33 37. Lack of opportunity for upward mobility (career advancement) discourages Blacks more than Whites in pursuing careers in blindness services. 2.37 4.37 2.64 3.67 22. Certification and accreditation requirements are barriers to the employment of Blacks in blindness services more than for Whites. 2.09 3.74 3.00 3.67 14. Career guidance programs for Black students in high school and college neglect social service careers such as blindness services. 2.98 5.22 3.40 4.00 28. Potential Black applicants for positions in blindness services are not identified by current recruitment methods. 2.78 4.95 3.50 5.00 12. Whites are more likely than Blacks to find out about job opportunities in blindness services through informal channels such as "the grapevine". 3.08 5.47 3.80 5.00 8. Low salaries in the field of blindness are more of a barrier to employment for Blacks than for Whites. 2.09 3.37 2.33 3.00 10. Blacks are more likely than Whites to stay in contact with friends and acquaintances in the field of blindness. 2.02 3.00 2.00 2.33 Black administrators perceived Whites as having advantages; White administrators perceived Whites and Blacks as having similar advantages; and most, if not all, of these differences may be due to generalized differences in how Blacks and Whites view society in general. These views may not be unique to the blindness services field, but may be similar if questions were related to other fields such as nursing, mental health, engineering, and business. Demographic Characteristics of Administrators Age. The average age of the 18 administrators was 49 years with a range from 34 to 65 years. White administrators' average age was 10 years greater than that of Black respondents (t (14) = 2.22, p = .044). The average age of Whites was 52 years and Blacks was 42 years. Gender and race. Sixty-seven percent of the respondents were male (12 respondents) and 33% were female (6 respondents). Of the 17 respondents who indicated their race, 18% (3) indicated African American, 76% (13) White, and 6% (1) Hispanic. For analysis purposes, the 1 Hispanic was classified as White. All of the Black respondents were female, while 2 of the 14 White respondents were female. Job category. There were 13 respondents indicating they were state office administrators (72%). Five (28%) indicated "other" positions, such as affirmative action administrator, rehabilitation specialist, section supervisor, chief of field services, and program manager. Of the 3 African American respondents, only 1 was a state office administrator. Among the remaining 15 White respondents, 12 or 80% were state administrators. Instructions in the cover letter requested that the state director/state office administrator or appropriate designate complete the survey. Five of the 18 surveys were completed by designates of the state director. All of the direct interviews were conducted with state directors or state office administrators. Length of employment. The average number of years worked in the blindness system by respondents was 16 years. The average was 11 years for Black and 18 years for White respondents; the difference was not statistically significant (p = .21). Educational achievement. All respondents were at least college graduates. There were 11% (2) with college degrees, 28% (5) with some postgraduate work, 50% (9) with master's degrees, and 11% (2) with doctorate degrees. There was no statistical difference in educational level between Black and White respondents. Results from Open-Ended Questions Open-ended questions were included in the survey at appropriate points as relevant to the rating questions. These questions solicited general comments on aspects of the shortage of African Americans in the blindness services profession. Many respondents chose not to answer some or all of the open-ended questions. However, there was a great deal of consensus among those who did answer. Responses were grouped according to general content areas or "themes". Attracting Black professionals: Current efforts. Administrators indicated that specific efforts were made to attract Black professionals into the field of services to persons who are blind. They participated in job fairs and career days, recommended appropriate education and training opportunities to Black potential employees, and contacted Black organizations and groups including churches and HBCUs to encourage Black applicants. Making careers in blindness services more visible and attractive. Responses from administrators indicated that several things could be done to make careers in blindness services more visible and attractive to Blacks including: increase awareness and publicity; increase salaries and benefits; increase training programs and financial aid; and develop cooperative work arrangements, summer jobs, and internships. Increasing participation of Blacks in training programs. Strategies for increasing participation of Blacks in training programs included improving publicity about careers and training in blindness services, increasing scholarships and loan programs for Black students, and developing training programs at HBCUs. Recruiting, hiring practices, real job opportunities. Administrators suggested strategies to increase Black applicants (targeted recruiting and Black role models); to eliminate discrimination; to advocate preparedness (increase awareness and motivation, use mentors); and to encourage employer flexibility in interviewing, relocation, training, and transition to work. Results from the National Interview of State Agency Administrators The national interview of administrators of state agencies in services to persons who are blind comprised a sample of the study population (N = 32 or 61%). The data were divided into two subsets of Black state administrators (N = 7) and White state administrators (N = 25). While the same interview protocol was used with both groups, the division by race allowed an evaluation of differences in patterns of responses. This interview protocol was the same as that used in the Alabama/Mississippi study (Giesen et al., 1995). Preliminary Evaluation: Black and White Administrators Interview Question 1: Are career choices in blindness services usually of interest to Blacks? Why or why not? Black administrators indicated interest among Blacks, except when there was "lack of awareness" about professional possibilities in blindness services. White administrators tended to disagree with the statement, citing lack of awareness or interest among Blacks. Interview Question 2: What are the factors, in your opinion, that keep Blacks from entering professional services to the blind? What is the most important factor and why? Black administrators stressed lack of exposure and recruitment and lack of awareness or knowledge about the professional area. White administrators also identified lack of recruitment and awareness, as well as limited financial support for training, lack of interest, and competition from other fields. Interview Question 3: It is suggested that the low job status or prestige associated with blindness services make it less attractive to Blacks. How would you respond to this claim? Black administrators disagreed that low job prestige was an inhibiting factor for Blacks; one person identified the problem as a lack of exposure among Blacks to this particular profession. White administrators tended to agree, although a sizable minority disagreed. Interview Question 4: Are there salary disparities between White and Black professionals in the field of blindness? If so, why? Black administrators agreed that financial disparities exist; one person stated that Blacks have to be "outstanding in abilities and performance" to obtain equal salaries. White administrators tended to agree, although many stressed "seniority" or "education" as causes for existing financial disparities. Interview Question 5: How would you respond to the statement that Whites are more likely than Blacks to seek jobs in blindness services? Blacks tended to agree with this statement and perceived Whites as being more aware of existing opportunities and having better access to the recruitment process. Whites also agreed and attributed this to White applicants being more aware of the profession. Interview Question 6: Do you see any problems or conditions within blindness services that may impede or militate against Blacks gaining entrance? Blacks identified "lack of opportunity for exposure and information sharing," and problems similar to those encountered in other professional service areas. Whites were split on this issue. Those who could identify problem areas, cited degree requirements and the need for more career information. Interview Question 7: Do you see certification and accreditation as factors impeding Blacks in blindness services. If so, how? Black administrators agreed with this statement and talked about the lack of education in the professional area. White administrators disagreed by a slim majority. Interview Question 8: What, if any, role do you feel historically Black colleges and universities can play in increasing Black interest and professional involvement in blindness services? Black administrators believed that funding for program studies and fellowships at HBCUs should be increased along with "program development and support". Whites also wanted HBCUs to provide training programs and financial assistance as well as outreach, recruitment, and awareness programs. Interview Question 9: Are there present advantages that Whites hold over Blacks in applying for employment in blindness services? If so, what are they? Black administrators believed that Whites hold advantages over Blacks in "networking" or access to an "inside track". White administrators identified networking, job locations, and "cultural bonding," although a sizable number did not believe that they held any advantage over Blacks in employment opportunities. Interview Question 10: Do you consider blindness services professionals or agencies as interested in increasing Black participation? If not, why? Blacks thought professionals or agencies were interested in increasing Black participation even if it was due to the weight of federal guidelines and regulations. Whites also agreed that agencies were interested in increasing Black participation. Interview Question 11: How can hiring practices be changed to encourage more Blacks in blindness services? Blacks believed hiring practices could be changed to encourage greater Black participation by recruiting (especially at the high school level) and targeting HBCUs. Whites stressed recruitment, increased awareness, changes in screening practices, commitment to hire more Blacks, and higher entry level pay. Interview Question 12: Do you see any discriminatory practices that inhibit Black employment? If yes, what are they? Black administrators identified discriminatory practices that were "systematic," individualistic, or occurred in the selection process. Whites identified the "good old boy" network, and cultural or social factors. A sizable majority of White administrators did not recognize any discriminatory practices. Interview Question 13: Do Black employees have equal chances and opportunities for upward mobility in blindness services? If not, why? Black administrators did not believe there were equal opportunities for upward mobility because of evaluation processes or the expectation that Blacks had to be "superior" to achieve upward mobility. The majority of White administrators answering this question believed that Blacks had equal chances for upward mobility, however a large percentage could not give an opinion on this issue. Interview Question 14: Are Blacks adequately aware of career opportunities in blindness services? What can be done to increase awareness? Black administrators did not believe that Blacks were adequately aware of career opportunities in blindness services because they were not exposed to the field, or blindness services was seen as a nontraditional area for Blacks. Whites also agreed that Blacks were unaware of career opportunities in blindness. Interview Question 15: How, in your opinion, can recruitment practices be improved to increase Black participation? Black administrators stressed targeting and advertising, and developing programs at HBCUs. Whites believed recruitment practices could be improved by involving HBCUs, increasing advertising and marketing, increasing public awareness, developing career programs in high schools and colleges, and targeting Black areas. Interview Question 16: Are there any roles that the federal or state governments can play to increase Black participation in blindness services? According to the Black administrators, governments could provide program support and financial assistance for education. Whites talked about providing financial assistance, scholarships, or grants; developing programs at HBCUs; and increasing knowledge and awareness. Interview Question 17: What are your feelings about future possibilities for Blacks in blindness services? Black administrators were optimistic about future possibilities, even though improvements might be slow. White administrators were also optimistic. Interview Question 18: Is the level of participation of Blacks in other social service professions (such as mental health, social work, nursing) greater than in blindness services? If so, why? If not, why not? Black administrators gave mixed responses: some believed that Black involvement was the same across all social service professions, while others believed that Blacks were "traditionally more exposed" to particular service areas. Whites tended to believe that participation levels were greater in other professional areas for Blacks. Summary and Evaluation of Administrator Responses A leading theme of Black administrators' responses is a general lack of awareness among Blacks about professional possibilities and opportunities in blindness services. "Lack of exposure" is due to the nature of recruitment practices or the lack thereof by blindness service agencies, and the absence of educational programs focusing on professional preparation for blindness services at HBCUs. Whites also believed that Blacks were not interested in careers in blindness services because of a general lack of understanding or awareness, and the low status of blindness services. Other problems inhibiting Black participation as perceived by Black administrators included salary disparities, networking and other advantages held by Whites, systemic discriminatory practices, the location of Blacks in "lower" professional levels, and the belief that upward mobility requires superior performance by Black professionals. White administrators believed that degree and exam requirements, and lack of career information were obstacles faced by Blacks. Whites attributed salary disparities to "seniority" or "education". In spite of these perceptions, all of the Black and White administrators expressed optimism when asked to reflect on future possibilities for Black professionals in services to persons who are blind. White administrators believed HBCUs have the potential for playing a dominant role in increasing the number of Black professionals. Whites also believed that federal and state governments can play a role in expanding the number of Black professionals by providing grants and scholarships, and developing programs in higher education. In general, Black and White administrators reached agreement in the following areas: 1. Lack of awareness and lack of recruitment are important factors influencing low Black representation in blindness services. 2. Whites are more likely than Blacks to seek jobs in blindness services. 3. Governments can play an important role in expanding the number of Black professionals in blindness services. 4. Educational institutions, especially HBCUs, can play a leading role in expanding training and opportunities for Blacks in blindness services. 5. Blindness service agencies are interested in increasing Black representation even if it was due to the weight of federal guidelines and regulations. 6. Targeting HBCUs, increasing recruitment, increasing awareness, changing screening practices, making the commitment to hire more Blacks, and offering higher entry level pay are some of the ways hiring practices could be changed to encourage more Blacks. 7. Government can provide financial assistance and develop the role of HBCUs to increase Black participation in blindness services. 8. Future opportunities for Blacks in blindness services are promising. Black and White administrators disagreed on the following issues: 1. Black administrators see Blacks as generally interested in blindness services, while White administrators perceive a lack of interest among Blacks. 2. Black administrators do not see low status and prestige of blindness professionals as a factor limiting Black involvement; White administrators identify this as a problem. 3. Black respondents believe there are salary disparities between Black and White professionals. While White administrators identify disparities, they believe the differences are due to education and seniority. 4. Black respondents believe that Blacks are prevented entrance to blindness services due to lack of exposure. Whites do not entirely agree that Blacks are denied entrance. 5. Blacks believe certification and accreditation impede Blacks from entering blindness services. Whites disagree. 6. Blacks believe Whites hold advantages due to networking. Whites also identify networking, as well as job locations and cultural bonding. Many of the White administrators disagree on the issue of advantages. 7. Both Black and White administrators identify discriminatory practices, although the percentage of Whites is much smaller. 8. Blacks do not believe there are equal opportunities for upward mobility for Blacks. Whites are more positive about the possibilities. 9. More Whites than Blacks believe that the level of Black participation is greater in other social service professions. Summary Conclusions and Recommendations From Agency Data African Americans are over-represented as clients and under-represented in the ranks of service providers in blindness VR. This is a national phenomenon. The national pattern is highly consistent with that found in previous research in Alabama and Mississippi (Giesen et al., 1995). In fact, regional data provided by the current study suggest that the phenomenon is fairly uniform across the country, but less in regions with lower proportions of African Americans in the state/regional population. To further illustrate these trends, current data from the combined national sample, regional data, and data from the Alabama/Mississippi study (Giesen et al., 1995) were compared by creating two indices. Since the percentage of African Americans in different regions of the country is quite different, it is necessary to consider the relative representation to the population percentage of African Americans as clients or as service providers. This index considers the percent participation of African Americans relative to their percentage in the population. Expressing this ratio as a percentage indicates the relative over- or under-representation. Moreover, an index value of 100% would indicate proportional representation; less than 100% would indicate under-representation; etc. The ratios of representation as clients and as service providers, nationally and regionally, are given in Figure 10. With respect to the participation ratio as service providers to the ratio as clients in blindness VR, the national level is estimated to be 41% to 132%. Northeast was 18% to 124%; South, 33% to 108%; Midwest, 80% to 151%; West-Central, 52% to 235%; and, for comparison, Alabama/Mississippi was 45% to 117%. Participation of African Americans as service providers in blindness VR was lowest in the Northeast, followed by South, Alabama/Mississippi, West-Central, and Midwest. The Northeast and South samples were below the national level. Participation of African Americans as clients in blindness VR was highest in the West-Central sample, followed by Midwest, the national level, Northeast, Alabama/Mississippi, and South. As previously noted, the estimates for Midwest and West-Central should be viewed with caution due to the small proportion of African Americans in the general population in these regions. The participation ratios appear to be an effective way to quantify the level of representation of African Americans--as providers and as clients--in blindness VR. The ratio has the advantage of sensitivity since it considers the level of participation relative to the proportion of African Americans in the comparison population. However these results are viewed, it is clear that there is plenty of room for progress in reducing the under-representation of Blacks in the ranks of service delivery professionals in blindness VR. From Administrator Ratings and Core Survey Questions at the beginning of the survey instrument were designed for administrators to respond in a global perspective regarding their organization. "Minority inclusion" efforts encompassed specific efforts and planning for recruiting, and changes in the personnel procedures. Procedural barriers and pay scale were not seen as problems. However, there was ambivalence regarding the lack of Black administrators, and agreement--more strongly among Black administrators--that more Black professional employees would improve service delivery. Suggestions. Thus, the following suggestions may be made: 1. With respect to recruiting, more specific efforts and an active plan may increase the level of participation of Blacks in blindness services. 2. Better entry pay levels may increase the attractiveness of employment in the field. 3. Administrators do not view the current personnel system as a major problem or barrier, but there is the suggestion that changes could be made to enhance recruitment of Black professionals. Figure 10 about here. 4. There is an expectation that more Black professionals will enhance the quality of service delivery to Black clients. These results, in general, show virtually identical trends overall, and in Black/White differences as those obtained in the Alabama/Mississippi study (Giesen et al., 1995). Core survey. Regarding efforts to increase participation, it was agreed that greater awareness, attractiveness, and participation in blindness services by Blacks could be accomplished with more career information and publicity, targeted recruiting, more degree granting programs and training programs at HBCUs, and more Blacks in the blindness field. These responses were very similar to those reported by Giesen et al. (1995) in Alabama and Mississippi. For differences in attractiveness of blindness services careers, Blacks agreed more than Whites that Whites are more likely to learn about careers in blindness, and working with persons who are blind is a more popular career choice for Whites. There was relative disagreement that a blindness career is more attractive for Whites; Blacks desire blindness careers less; Blacks do not have enough training or social skills for jobs in blindness services; and the low job status of blindness services has more of an impact on Blacks. There was relative agreement that Whites are more likely to have mentors in the field. Average ratings on other items did not indicate clear agreement or disagreement. Regarding factors affecting Black participation in blindness services, administrators agreed that job stability and lack of new jobs have held down career participation by Blacks and that increased financial assistance for academic and other training will increase Black participation. These findings were consistent with Giesen et al. (1995). For future prospects of African Americans in blindness services careers, Whites tended to agree more than Blacks that Blacks will get their share of new employment opportunities and new advancement opportunities. There was general agreement that retirements will provide more employment opportunities, and blindness services professionals want to increase Black participation. Respondents disagreed that more available financial assistance for training is available for Blacks. Again, these findings were consistent with Giesen et al. (1995). For differences in perceptions on blindness services as part of society, Black respondents perceived Whites as having advantages; White respondents perceived Whites and Blacks as having similar advantages; and most, if not all, of these differences may be due to generalized differences in how Blacks and Whites view society in general. These views may not be unique to the blindness services field, but may be similar if questions were related to other occupational fields. From Personal Interviews of Administrators Lack of awareness, low occupational status, salary disparities, disadvantages in networking and seniority, inequitable performance standards for advancement, and educational/degree requirements were among the factors noted as perceived problems inhibiting Black participation in blindness services careers. Blacks, in particular, identified discriminatory practices still in place in rehabilitation agencies (e.g., they believed that Blacks must demonstrate superior performance to be selected for a job or to advance in a career). Yet, there was optimism for increased future participation by Blacks, particularly through heightened emphasis on the career area in postsecondary educational institutions, particularly HBCUs, and targeted incentive programs (e.g., grants and scholarships). Concluding Comments The under-representation of African Americans as providers in blindness rehabilitation is a national phenomenon. There is converging evidence from a variety of perspectives that the phenomenon is associated with lack of awareness and exposure of the field, networking tendencies that preserve the status quo, and salary levels that lack strong incentives to draw attention to or change the attractiveness of the field. A number of specific remedies have been proposed earlier in this report and are based on the notion of a synergistic increase in interest brought about by increased awareness and publicity in educational systems, specific educational programs directed toward African American students, and financial incentives to enter these education programs. The number of African Americans in the profession of blindness rehabilitation services should then increase. Those entering the field will serve as role models and mentors, further increasing the number of African Americans in blindness services. With greater levels of professional participation by African Americans in blindness services, we can expect better, more culturally sensitive services to clients, and greater success in reaching unserved African Americans who are blind or visually impaired. The responsibility for facilitation of these efforts to increase participation by African Americans lies with all who may read this report. This includes blindness services administrators and professionals in state and private rehabilitation agencies, blindness rehabilitation educators and trainers, members and leaders in blindness consumer organizations, researchers, consumers, and potential career employees interested in the challenge of a career in rehabilitation of persons who are blind. Positive change will require continued mindfulness and sustained efforts, a challenge of true professionalism. This study helped validate previous research regarding the existence of the under-representation of African Americans in blindness services. This study also showed that the perspectives of the phenomenon and possible solutions are consistent on a national scale. But these are the perspectives of current administrators and service providers: the view of the field by its members. Further research is needed to document and evaluate the level of awareness and perceptions of the career field of blindness services by those who are potential career employees. In response, a regional survey of college and university students at both HBCUs and historically White colleges and universities (HWCUs) is underway to investigate views of blindness services relative to other possible career choices. REFERENCES Asbury, C. A., Walker, S., Maholmes, V., Rackley, R., & White, S. (1991). Disability prevalence and demographic association among race/ethnic minority populations in the United States: Implications for the 21st century. Washington, DC: The Howard University Research and Training Center for Access to Rehabilitation and Economic Opportunity, School of Education, Howard University. Bowe, F. (1985). Black adults with disabilities. A statistical report drawn from census bureau data. Bowe, F. (1992). Black adults with disabilities: A portrait. Unpublished manuscript, Hofstra University, Counseling, Research, Special Education, and Rehabilitation Department, Hempstead, NY. Giesen, J. M., Gooding, E. M., McBroom, L. W., Hicks, J., Ewing, S., Maxson, J. H., & Armstrong, G. K. (1995). Participation levels of African Americans in the profession of blindness services: Views of service providers (Monograph). Mississippi State: Mississippi State University, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision. Kahn, H. A., & Moorehead, H. B. (1973). Model reporting area on blindness statistics, 1969 #70. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office. Kirchner, C. (1985). Data on blindness and visual impairment in the U.S.: A resource manual on characteristics, education, employment and service delivery. New York: American Foundation for the Blind. Kirchner, C., & Peterson, R. (1981). Estimates of race-ethnic groups in the U.S.: Visually impaired and blind population. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 75(2), 73-76. National Center for Health Statistics. (1977). Health and nutrition examination survey: Monocular visual acuity of persons 4-74 years, United States--1971-1972. Vital and Health Statistics Series 11, No. 201. Rockville, MD: Author. National Center for Health Statistics and National Center for Health Service Research. (1977). Health interview survey, United States, 1976-1977, Hyattsville, MD: Author. Prevent Blindness America. (1994). Vision problems in the U. S. Schaumburg, IL: Author. Ruiz, P. (1983). Clinical care update: The minority patient. Community Mental Health Journal, 21(3), 208-216. Thornhill, H. L., & HoSong, D. A. (1988). Poverty, race and disability. In S. Walker, J. E. Fowler, R. W. Nichols, & K. Turner (Eds.), Building bridges to independence: Employment, successes, problems, and needs of African-Americans with disabilities (pp. 148-156). Washington, DC: The Center for the Study of Handicapped Children and Youth, School of Education, Howard University. Tielsch, J. M., Sommer, A., Witt, K., Katz, J., Royall, R. M., & The Baltimore Eye Survey Research Group. (1990). Blindness and visual impairment in an American urban population. Archives of Ophthalmology, 108, 286-290. United States Bureau of the Census. (1995). United States population estimates by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin. Population Division Release PPL-21 [On-line]. Available Gopher: gopher.census.gov United States Bureau of the Census. (1992a). 1990 census of population: General population characteristics: Mississippi, May 1992. Washington, DC: Author. United States Bureau of the Census. (1992b). 1990 census of population and housing [On-line]. Available Gopher: spinaltap.micro.umn.edu/Ebooks/By title, 1990 Census Information/Alabama, .../Mississippi United Way of America. (1987). What lies ahead: Looking toward the 90's. Alexandria, VA: Author. Uslan, M. M., Hill, E. W., & Peck, A. F. (1989). The profession of orientation and mobility in the 1980's: The AFB competency study. New York: American Foundation for the Blind. Walker, S., Akpati, E., Roberts, V., Palmer, R., & Newson, M. (1986). In A. M. Banner, F. Z. Belgrave, R. W. Nicholls, & S. Walker (Eds.), Equal to the challenge, pp. 27-38. Washington, DC: Bureau of Educational Research, School of Education, Howard University. Appendix A Agency Data Form PRESURVEY QUESTIONS FOR AGENCY ADMINISTRATORS 1. How many individuals who serve blind and visually impaired clients does your agency currently employ? 2. How many African American individuals who serve blind and visually impaired clients does your agency currently employ? 3. How many blind and visually impaired persons have been served by your organization in the past three years?* October 1, 1990 - September 30, 1991 October 1, 1991 - September 30, 1992 October 1, 1992 - September 30, 1993 4. For each of the last three years, how many blind and visually impaired persons served by your organization belonged to the following groups: 10/1/90 - 9/30/91 10/1/91 - 9/30/92 10/1/92 - 9/30/93 White African American Asian/Pacific Islander Hispanic Native American Other 5. How many professional staff vacancies have you had in your organization serving people who are blind in the past three years? October 1, 1990 - September 30, 1991 October 1, 1991 - September 30, 1992 October 1, 1992 - September 30, 1993 * If your fiscal year begins on a different date, please cross out the dates and insert those used by your agency. Agency Contact Person Appendix B Survey Instrument Participation of African Americans in the Profession of Services to Persons who are Blind: A Survey of Perceptions and Barriers Instructions. There are three types of items in this survey. Some are statements with a rating scale to indicate your degree of agreement or disagreement, some are questions that ask for a brief written response, and some ask you to provide general information about yourself. A. Have specific efforts been made to attract Black professionals into your organization? Yes þ No þ. If yes, please describe these efforts. B. Are there barriers in the personnel system procedures of your organization that may inhibit targeted recruiting of Blacks? Yes þ No þ. If yes, please describe. C. Are there changes which can be made in your personnel system procedures, which, in your opinion, would enhance the recruitment of Blacks? Yes þ No þ. If yes, please describe. D. What is the approximate age range of the professional employees in your organization? to E. What is the approximate average age of the professional employees in your organization? Please circle the number that indicates your agreement or disagreement with each statement. The rating scale is from 1 = "strongly disagree" to 6 = "strongly agree". Strongly Strongly disagree agree F. We are unable to attract qualified Black professional employees due to our entry level pay scale. 1 2 3 4 5 6 G. Policy makers in this organization have an active plan to encourage recruitment of qualified Black employees. 1 2 3 4 5 6 H. The lack of Black administrators inhibits efforts at recruiting qualified Black employees. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I. The personnel system procedures of this organization present barriers to targeted recruiting of Blacks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 J. More Black professional employees will enhance the quality of service delivery. 1 2 3 4 5 6 K. More Black professional employees will enhance the quality of service delivery to Black clients. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Blacks do not desire blindness services as a career choice. 1 2 3 4 5 6 2.Human service jobs, such as blindness rehabilitation, are popular career choices for Whites. 1 2 3 4 5 6 3.Working with persons who are blind is a more attractive career choice for Whites than for Blacks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 4.The low job status or low respect given to employees in blindness services makes it a less attractive career choice for Blacks than for Whites. 1 2 3 4 5 6 5.Blacks, due to their history and cultural traditions, are highly motivated to work with disabled persons such as persons who are blind. 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.As more Blacks work in blindness services, it will become a more attractive career choice for Blacks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7.Better salaries in blindness services will increase the attractiveness of these jobs for Blacks more so than for Whites. 1 2 3 4 5 6 8.Low salaries in the field of blindness are more of a barrier to employment for Blacks than for Whites. 1 2 3 4 5 6 9.Given the same amount of training and/or experience, Whites are paid more than Blacks in the field of blindness. 1 2 3 4 5 6 10.Blacks are more likely than Whites to stay in contact with friends and acquaintances in the field of blindness. 1 2 3 4 5 6 11.Whites are more likely than Blacks to intentionally seek jobs in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6What might be done to make careers in blindness services more attractive to Blacks? Strongly Strongly disagree agree 12.Whites are more likely than Blacks to find out about job opportunities in blindness services through informal channels such as "the grapevine". 1 2 3 4 5 6 13.Whites are more likely than Blacks to have a mentor or advisor in the field of blindness. 1 2 3 4 5 6 14.Career guidance programs for Black students in high school and college neglect social service careers such as blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6 15.Whites are more likely than Blacks to learn about careers in blindness. 1 2 3 4 5 6 16.More information on professions in blindness services at high school and college career days will greatly increase awareness of careers in blindness. 1 2 3 4 5 6 17.More publicity about blindness and/or blindness professionals will increase awareness of career opportunities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 What specific actions or activities would increase the awareness of Blacks about career opportunities in blindness services? Strongly Strongly disagree agree 18.Blacks do not have enough training to qualify for existing jobs in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6 19.There are more college degree training opportunities in blindness services for Blacks than for Whites. 1 2 3 4 5 6 20.Financial assistance for college degree blindness service training is more readily available for Blacks than for Whites. 1 2 3 4 5 6 21.Increased financial assistance for college degree training will improve the low career participation rate of Blacks more than Whites. 1 2 3 4 5 6 22.Certification and accreditation requirements are barriers to the employment of Blacks in blindness services more than for Whites. 1 2 3 4 5 6 23.Whites are more likely than Blacks to possess the social skills necessary for jobs in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6 24.Financial assistance for Black students for training in blindness services is an excellent way to increase the number of Blacks in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6 25.Development of degree granting programs and training programs in blindness rehabilitation at historically Black colleges and universities will be an excellent way to increase the number of Blacks in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6What are ways of increasing Black participation in training programs that could lead to careers in blindness services? Strongly Strongly disagree agree 27.White applicants for positions in blindness services have an advantage over equally qualified Black applicants. 1 2 3 4 5 6 28.Potential Black applicants for positions in blindness services are not identified by current recruitment methods. 1 2 3 4 5 6 29.The "good old boy network" keeps Blacks from hearing about jobs in the blindness profession. 1 2 3 4 5 6 30.The "good old boy network" keeps Blacks from getting jobs in the blindness profession. 1 2 3 4 5 6 31.Blindness service professionals would like to increase Black participation in the field. 1 2 3 4 5 6 32.Targeting recruitment efforts specifically toward Blacks will increase the numbers of Black professionals in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6 33.Government policies have increased Black participation in the blindness profession. 1 2 3 4 5 6How can hiring practices be changed to recruit and to hire more Blacks in blindness services? Strongly Strongly disagree agree 34.There are few Blacks in the blindness services profession because of discrimination in past hiring practices. 1 2 3 4 5 6 35.There has been little opportunity for Blacks to move into the blindness services profession because there has been almost no turnover or very few new jobs in this field. 1 2 3 4 5 6 36.There has been little opportunity for Blacks to move up within the blindness services profession because there has been almost no turnover or very few new jobs in this field. 1 2 3 4 5 6 37.Lack of opportunity for upward mobility (career advancement) discourages Blacks more than Whites in pursuing careers in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6 38.Assuming that many blindness services professionals are approaching retirement, there will be more opportunity for Blacks to enter blindness services in the future. 1 2 3 4 5 6 39.As new job opportunities occur in the blindness services profession, Blacks will get their fair share of new jobs. 1 2 3 4 5 6 40.As new job opportunities occur in the blindness services profession, Blacks will have their fair share of opportunities to move up within the profession. 1 2 3 4 5 6How can Blacks have real opportunities for new jobs in blindness services? Strongly Strongly disagree agree 41.Due to a history of economic hardship, Blacks are less likely than Whites to pursue lower paying jobs such as those in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6 42.Family and community ties prevent Blacks more than Whites from moving or relocating to take jobs in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6 43.Economic factors prevent Blacks more than Whites from moving or relocating to take jobs in blindness services. 1 2 3 4 5 6What can be done to overcome possible difficulties associated with moving or relocation for Blacks in taking jobs in blindness services? What other specific actions or activities could lead to increased participation by Blacks in blindness services careers? Please answer the following questions. 1.How old were you on your last birthday? 2.What is your sex? Male þ Female þ 3.To what racial or ethnic group do you belong? þ Black/African American þ White/Caucasian þ Hispanic þ Asian/Pacific Islander þ Native American þ Other (please specify) 4.Which job category best describes your job in rehabilitation? þ State Office Administrator þ Other (please specify) 5.How long have you worked in the blindness system? years 6.What is the highest level of education you have achieved? þ Less than high school graduation þ High school graduate/GED þ Some college þ Community or junior college graduate þ Senior college or university graduate þ Some postgraduate college work þ Master's degree þ Doctorate degree Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. Your answers will help provide information to understand barriers and increase opportunities for Blacks in the profession of services to persons who are blind. You will receive a summary of the survey results when it becomes available. Please return the survey in the envelope provided. Please return the enclosed postage-paid card SEPARATELY from the survey. This will notify us that you have returned your survey, and we will not need to contact you further. If you have any questions about this survey, contact the following person: Ms. Suzanne Ewing RRTC on Blindness and Low Vision P.O. Drawer 6189 Mississippi State, MS 39762 Phone: (601) 325-2001 ---------- End of Document