The Transition to College for Students with Visual Impairments Technical Report Lynn W. McBroom, Ph.D. Anjoo Sikka, Ph.D. Leda Bartlett Jones, M.A. April, 1994 Mississippi State University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision P.O. Drawer 6189, Mississippi State, MS 39762 Copyright þ 1994 All Rights Reserved Mississippi State University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision P.O. Drawer 6189, Mississippi State, MS 39762 Development of this document was supported in part by the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision Grant H133B10003 from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, Department of Education, Washington, DC. Opinions expressed in this document are not necessarily those of the granting agency. Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, age, national origin, veterans status, or disability. Table of Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Making Plans to Attend College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Begin Early . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Academic Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Social Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Selecting an Area of Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Educational Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Accommodating Students with Visual Impairments. . . . . . 7 Timelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Legal Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Admissions Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Classroom Accommodations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Problems in the Classroom and Beyond. . . . . . . . . . . 19 Disabled Student Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Overcoming Problems in the Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . 20 Testing Accommodations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Science Laboratories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Transition Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Transition Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Research Learning Forum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Information that is Helpful to Know Before Attending College. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Guidelines and/or Qualifications Required by Rehabilitation Agencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Important Areas to Include in the Research. . . . . . . . 34 Preparation for Attending College . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Epilogue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Selection of Upperclassmen to Represent "Successful" Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Anticipated Results and Applications. . . . . . . . . . . 40 Results of Student Survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Demographics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Educational Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 College Demographics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Reading Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Work History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Extracurricular Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Mobility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Future Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Services and Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Received Help from Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 College Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Problems While Attending College . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Reading Medium Correlated with Problem Areas. . . . . . . 48 Computer Usage Correlated with Problem Areas. . . . . . . 48 High School Grades Correlated with Problem Areas. . . . . 49 College Grades Correlated with Problem Areas. . . . . . . 49 Work History Correlated with Problem Areas. . . . . . . . 49 Participation in Extracurricular Activities Correlated with Problem Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Results of Administrative Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Time Spent on Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Admission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Effect of the Americans with Disabilities Act . . . . . . 52 Services Provided by Colleges, Now and in the Future. . . 53 Students' Use of Services Provided by Colleges During the Last Year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Source of Payment for Services Provided by Colleges . . . 54 Additional Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Qualitative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 What Do You Know Now About College that You Wish You Had Known when You Were a Freshman?. . . . . . . . . 56 What Advice Would You Give a High School Student with a Visual Impairment Who Wanted to Go to College? . . . 58 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 What Do Students with Visual Impairments Need to Know to Attend College? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 What are the Specific Steps that Students with Visual Impairments Need to Take in Order to Successfully Attend College?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Do Skills, Knowledge, and Steps Differ from the Perspective of Students Versus Program Administrators?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Appendix D: What Do You Know Now About College that You Wish You Had Known when You Were a Freshman? . . . . . . 75 Appendix E: What Advice Would You Give a High School Student with a Visual Impairment Who Wanted to Go to College? 88 Introduction Students who are visually impaired as well as those who are sighted share similar concerns when attending college for the first time. They must register for class, find their way around a strange campus, meet new people (and hopefully, make a few new friends), survive dormitory life and cafeteria food, and adequately prepare to pass their courses. Students who are visually impaired share all these concerns and a few more which are unique to their particular situation. How will they arrange to complete reading assignments (find and hire readers, locate adaptive equipment for their needs, find enough time to complete all those assignments)? How will they find their way around campus when everyone else is just as lost as they are that first week? How will they deal with these and other issues that someone else (high school teachers, parents) may have been doing for them all of their lives? What support systems will they have when they leave home (maybe for the first time)? Typically, students with disabilities are not adequately prepared for a college education, do not have access to resources and services enhancing their education programs, and tend to be less socially involved than their nondisabled peers (National Council on Disability, 1989). Students with disabilities experience more difficulties while in college and are at the greatest risk of dropping out of a postsecondary school before completing their program (Brown, 1990; Butler-Nalin, Marder, & Shaver, 1989). In spite of these challenges, students with visual impairments are attending colleges in significant numbers. Students with visual impairments are enrolling in colleges at rates comparable to the nondisabled population. Fifty-six percent of students without disabilities attended a postsecondary institution in the previous year after exiting from high school. Even more students with visual impairments attended a college during the same time period (68) (Marder & D'Amico, 1992). Obtaining a college education is important. Many blue collar and white collar jobs now require advanced technical training that is only available through a college training program. College students obtain skills needed to overcome barriers to employment. They receive support services such as career counseling or job placement that help direct their educational programs and job search efforts towards work that matches their abilities. A college education also expands their opportunities for social interactions (Marder & D'Amico, 1992). A clear-cut economic benefit is less apparent because a college education does not have the same economic payoff for persons who are visually impaired and specifically, for women who are visually impaired. Kirchner, McBroom, Nelson, and Graves' (1992) research showed that a college education provided less of an economic payoff when compared to sighted respondents. When the results were separated by gender, the disparities were even more striking. In spite of this research finding, the staff of the AER Report (Staff, 1993) believe that people with visual impairments have a better chance for future competitive employment than other disability groups who have higher high school drop-out rates and lower initial rates of enrollment in college. In 1991, 8.80f all first-time, full-time freshmen students reported having a disability. This is a significant increase from 2.6 0n 1978. The most frequently reported disabilities were visual and learning disabilities (about 250f the freshmen students with disabilities reported each type) (HEATH, 1993a). In order to encourage more students with visual impairments to enter college programs and to remain in those programs until graduation, research is needed which identifies skills, knowledge, and steps necessary for students with visual impairments to enter college and to complete course work and training. This study was designed to identify previous research and writings about the transition to college. Information was collected from students with visual impairments who were enrolled in college and who had "survived" their freshmen year. These students offered their insights and thoughts about succeeding in the college environment. Additional data were gathered from college administrators about their programs for students with visual impairments. Taken together, this information will help high school students, parents, high school counselors, vocational rehabilitation counselors, and rehabilitation teachers plan for a college education. In this monograph, "college" refers to all two-year colleges, four-year colleges, and four-year universities. Postsecondary vocational schools are not included in this group. The use of "college" when discussing postsecondary education of students with visual impairments is appropriate because this is where most of these students are enrolled. While 660f students with visual impairments attended a two- or four-year college or university, only 3attended a vocational school (Marder & D'Amico, 1992). Because of this demographic fact and because "postsecondary education" is such an unwieldy phrase, "college" will be used in the remainder of this report. Making Plans to Attend College High school students with visual impairments who are considering post high school options have many of the same decisions to make as their nondisabled peers. They must decide if they want or need to attend college. They must be academically and socially prepared to compete in a college environment. They must select a college which matches their needs and accepts them into its program. They must be able to pay for a college education either through personal funds or by making other financial arrangements. Finally, students with visual impairments must obtain needed accommodations to compensate for their visual impairments. Begin Early With all this in mind, planning for college has to begin early for students with visual impairments. This student does not have the luxury of waiting until the last minute to make up his or her mind about the future. For example, the student must first be admitted to the program before registering for any classes. Gaining admission to a program may require certain preparatory courses or minimum scores on standardized admissions tests. Admissions tests are available in alternate media, but they must be requested in advance. Students with disabilities often have concerns about taking college admissions tests including what to do if scores are comparably lower than the norm group and how to arrange for standardized tests in alternate media. In general, accommodations for visual impairments can be made, but arrangements usually take a while to accomplish. Guidance counselors should be prepared to assist students in making these arrangements in advance of the regular enrollment period (Davie, 1990; HEATH, 1989a; HEATH, 1989c; Jarrow et al., 1991). Planning for college does not occur in a vacuum. It has to involve all the relevant people including students, parents, teachers, guidance counselors, vocational rehabilitation counselors, college administrators, and college teachers. Each person has a key role to play in the decision-making process. While ultimately it is the student who must make the decisions and live with the consequences, the other players have significant input in the process. Nevertheless, it is critical that students make the choice to attend college rather than parents, teachers, or other people (HEATH, no date:a; Yuditsky, 1991). In testimony to the National Council on Disability (1989), expert witnesses declared that transition planning must begin early in the student's high school program; be coordinated between the high school, adult services agencies, and college; and focus directly on adult life outcomes. The Council concluded that parental participation during high school facilitates the successful transition of students with disabilities from school to adult life. Even though the state educational system is responsible for students with visual impairments at the high school level, the transition process can be smoothed by contacting the vocational rehabilitation agency before high school graduation (Davie, 1990; HEATH, no date:a). This allows time for agency personnel to become familiar with the student and to begin anticipating the student's needs and the services that can be provided after transition into the adult rehabilitation agency. Academic Preparation Anyone planning to attend college, including students with visual impairments, should have the appropriate academic background. If they do not possess skills and knowledge, no amount of accommodations will make up for the loss of academic training. Academic ability rather than physical disability should be the first priority in selecting a college. Students should be encouraged to treat their disability as just one part of themselves. When making decisions about schools and jobs, the disability should be considered, but it should not and cannot be the only factor in the decision-making process (Brill, 1987; Council of Chief State School Officers Resource Center on Educational Equity, no date; Jarrow et al., 1991; National Federation of the Blind, 1981). Students wishing to pursue college opportunities should consult with a guidance counselor about their high school curricula. Students with visual impairments must know at the beginning of high school that they will have completed the necessary coursework for entry into college upon graduation from high school (Davie, 1990). They must also consider if they are taking the same types of courses as are taken by other students preparing for college. For example, if students with disabilities were confined to special classes, were the same experiences and information conveyed to both groups? A high school counselor can assist students who are visually impaired with the following activities: (1) Realistically assess a student for college potential, (2) provide information about college programs offering special services for students with disabilities and help students apply for these services, (3) prepare students for college admission interviews, (4) help students develop interpersonal skills, (5) provide career advisement, and (6) educate students about their visual impairments (Mangrum & Strichart, 1984). Some students may want to complete vocational assessment inventories or psychological tests which can either expand or narrow their occupational choices (Davie, 1990; HEATH, no date:a). Mangrum and Strichart (1984) advised high school teachers to enroll students in college preparatory courses, provide content area instruction by specialists, and provide assignments in a format similar to college class assignments. Students should also be taught how to read textbooks effectively, how to read graphs, how to study, how to organize their study time and space, how to function independently, how to use auxiliary aids, and how to take college entrance tests. Students pursuing a college education should be provided intensive vocabulary and written language instruction as well as taught basic skills and areas of knowledge. Social Preparation Students with visual impairments may have very limited, unstructured social experiences because of their need for additional instructions in orientation and mobility (O&M), communication, social interactions, and remedial academics. Their time is filled with meeting the daily demands of school and community activities and there is no remaining time for after- school or summer employment. In a similar manner, their parents' time is taken up by finding appropriate educational programs, securing special services, maintaining on-going medical services, responding to siblings and family members, managing the home, earning a living, and tending to other daily responsibilities. Teachers are responsible for providing basic instructions, as well as adapting curricula, techniques, strategies, and materials to the needs of their students who are visually impaired. Everyone is struggling to find time to take care of the "basics." The consequence is that students with visual impairments may be prepared academically, but not socially and may have very little concrete or realistic ideas about their career future (Simpson, Huebner, & Roberts, 1980). In college settings, students are expected to be responsible for both their academic life and their personal life. In order to be successful in college, students need to be as self- sufficient and productive as possible. Any student considering college opportunities should be able to act independently, negotiate transportation facilities, attend to personal needs, plan use of money, and behave appropriately in different situations (Davis, Dollahan, Jacobs, Jaeger, & Marici, 1986; Dollahan & Jacobs, 1987; Jarrow et al., 1991). Davie (1987) suggested several specific activities that parents can do at home to promote independence for their child who is disabled: (1) Share cleaning, shopping, and meal preparation responsibilities; (2) teach money management skills by providing a weekly allowance or income for doing small jobs; (3) encourage participation in leisure activities, such as clubs, classes, or other group activities which can form the basis for ongoing friendships in casual settings; (4) work along side the child who is disabled (companionable modeling) to teach self- confidence and willingness to try independent activities; (5) discuss jobs emphasizing the variety of occupational possibilities; (6) contact the vocational rehabilitation agency; (7) teach scheduling and time management skills by setting up a daily routine, encouraging the child to follow the routine, and compensating for scheduling problems; (8) listen to the child's ideas and suggestions as he/she tries new experiences and tasks; and (9) allow the child to experience failure and to make mistakes. High school students with visual impairments should be encouraged to take part-time jobs, volunteer for community work, or join disability-related organizations. Such activities place students into the mainstream of worklife, increase their interactions with nondisabled peers and employers, develop job skills, allow exploration of career interests, and provide material for job resumes when seeking full-time employment. Disability-related organizations can provide support, information, and advocacy for their members (Davie, 1990; HEATH, no date:a). Selecting an Area of Study Before choosing a college, students must have some idea of what they want to study (Brill, 1987). Some financial aid programs require students to declare a major area of study before being accepted. The selection of a college will then be dependent upon that school offering a chosen area of study. In considering a future area of study, high school students can (a) discuss career plans and questions with parents, friends, other people who are disabled, and persons working in desirable jobs; (b) discuss academic programs and the possibility of a work-study component with teachers; (c) evaluate personal interests, hobbies, and favorite recreational activities; (d) explore all available college opportunities; and (e) take an active role in writing the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or Individualized Written Rehabilitation Plan (IWRP) (Brill, 1987; Council of Chief State School Officers Resource Center on Educational Equity, no date; HEATH, 1989c). In contrast to a self-assessment of abilities, Brown (1990) advocated a very formal assessment process that included (a) instruments that assess reading comprehension and numerical skills; (b) a structured interview to access generalizable skill level; (c) a learning styles inventory to match the instructional materials and strategies with the student's learning style; (d) other informal interviews, checklists, and assessment strategies; and (e) structured interviews with admission personnel focusing on the student's mathematical skills, communication skills, interpersonal skills, reasoning skills, time management skills, ability to retain information, physical abilities, personal satisfaction with training programs, personal satisfaction with being a student, and motivational level for completing the college program. Brown believed that this extensive assessment program would reduce the dropout rate for students with disabilities and help them better achieve their vocational goals. Hartman, Baker, and Harris (1986) advised students to keep their disability in perspective when planning for college. They described a set of criteria for choosing a college which should be considered in the following order: (a) availability of training (field of study, reputation of the college, diversity and size of student body, intellectual and social environment of the college), (b) cost (family or third party contributions, financial aid, work-study or cooperative education opportunities, scholarships, internships, savings), and (c) auxiliary aids and accessibility (quality and type of support services appropriate for the student's disability). By emphasizing the criteria in this order, responsibility is placed on students to understand their disability-related needs and to negotiate accommodations with administrators of college programs. Educational Financing Students with disabilities frequently incur additional expenses, such as special equipment, readers, interpreters, notetakers, personal care attendants (including salaries and training expenses), special transportation arrangements, medical expenses not covered by insurance, and food and veterinary bills for dog guides. Vocational rehabilitation agencies may provide tuition expenses; reader and interpreter services; individually prescribed aids and devices contained in the Individualized Written Rehabilitation Program (IWRP); telecommunications, sensory, and other technological aids and devices; and other goods and services to help the person become employable (HEATH, 1992). Students with disabilities are more likely to be members of lower-income families. They are less likely to have received financial assistance from their families and less likely to have contributed savings from summer work towards their college expenses (HEATH, 1993a). Consequently, students with disabilities are squeezed at both ends of the financial spectrum; they have fewer financial resources and greater living expenses. Most of these students will seek financial help from sources outside their families. Students who are visually impaired wishing to attend college have several options for funding their education. There are scholarships and financial aid packages offered specifically for students with visual impairments through service, consumer, or community agencies. State vocational rehabilitation agencies often provide financial assistance as part of an individual's rehabilitation plan. Other sources of aid are the U.S. Department of Education, colleges, companies, and nonprofit organizations (Tannenbaum, 1984). HEATH published Financial aid for students with disabilities (1989d) which focused on financial aid for tuition and living expenses. Another financial aid resource is Schlachter and Weber's (1990) Financial aid for the disabled and their families: 1990-1991 which described financial aid programs established primarily or exclusively for individuals with disabilities and their families. Hartman and Brill (1989) offered detailed financial aid information for students with disabilities including definitions of what constitutes financial aid, what is meant by family contributions, the financial aid process, example of a financial aid package, which expenses are considered to be disability-related, sources of financial aid, lists of resources, and a financial aid checklist. Accommodating Students with Visual Impairments It is at this point that the decision-making process for students with visual impairments varies from students who are not disabled. Students with visual impairments must know what accommodations are needed in order to compensate for their disability. The student must evaluate his or her strengths, weaknesses, abilities, and deficits. Students, parents, teachers, and guidance counselors should continue to realistically assess the required level of support in order to determine the optimum level of support needed during college (HEATH, no date:a). For the first time in their lives, many students will assume direct responsibility for obtaining their own accommodations and assistive devices rather than relying on high school teachers to make provisions for them (Yuditsky, 1991). For example, students with visual impairments will need to know how to obtain accessible textbooks and class materials; determine the provider of services; learn how to access libraries and other facilities on campus; determine the amount of notice that should be given in order to receive optimal services; locate, hire, train, and fire readers; and develop a methodology for taking notes, listening to the compressed speech of recorded textbooks, and organizing and writing research papers (Harrell & Curry, 1987; Jarrow et al., 1991). For these and other accommodations, students must learn how to advocate for themselves rather than depending upon others to intervene for them. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, P.L. 94-142, the recently enacted Americans with Disabilities Act, and other relevant laws require colleges which receive federal funds to accommodate students with disabilities. However, teachers and administrators may not know how to go about making those accommodations. That is why students who are affected must be ready to assert their needs and rights and offer suggestions as to how colleges can provide accommodations. Colleges are not required to make specific accommodations, however, they must provide accommodations which work for the student (HEATH, 1989c; Valdivieso & Hartman, 1991). Legal issues are discussed further in the section on "Legal Requirements" beginning on page 15. When beginning the process of evaluating colleges, administrators of disabled student services can be consulted even before applications are submitted. Through such contacts, students can discover the availability of programs and services which might make their transition easier. Any personal contacts which can lead to the location of an appropriate advisor, friend, or mentor on campus can be very helpful to a student with a visual impairment during the initial transition period (Davie, 1990; Davis, Dollahan et al., 1986; Dollahan & Jacobs, 1987; HEATH, no date:a). Often, the best way to evaluate a college is to visit the campus and meet with administrators, teachers, and students. The optimal time to visit a campus is when classes are in session. Students with visual impairments will be able to make a better judgement about accommodations if students, activities, and distractions are present. Examination times should be avoided, because students and teachers may not have the time or inclination to visit with prospective students (HEATH, 1989c). There are many areas that need to be considered when evaluating a college for someone with a visual disability (Michael, 1987; Jarrow et al., 1991; Satcher & Dooley-Dickey, 1991; Spiers, 1992). Does the college modify its admission procedures to include priority scheduling and registration? Can the student obtain advance notice of required books and materials, as well as course syllabi? What support services does the college provide (e.g., transportation, adapted textbooks, orientation to campus, assistance in filling out forms)? Can preferential seating be arranged? How are classes adapted so that students with disabilities participate? What alternative testing options are available? Is counseling provided (e.g., personal, academic, social, career)? What is the attitude and behavior of faculty members toward students with disabilities? Is there a disabled student services coordinator and what role does that person play? Does the college provide assistance with study skills? Does someone provide instructions in library use and assist with library retrievals? Are social groups and extracurricular activities open to students with disabilities? Is information available about the rights of students with disabilities? Is there a listing of available college services and overall resources, including adaptive devices? Can the student obtain timely information about scholarships? Is there a listing of outside services and support groups in the community? Does the college allow advance visits to classrooms? Has the college removed architectural barriers? Does the college provide adapted computer equipment and software, voice synthesizers, braille printers, scanners, Opticans, closed circuit televisions (CCTVs), typewriters, large print copiers, talking or braille calculators, raised line drawing kits, 4-track tape recorders, talking spell-checkers, adapted laboratory equipment, tutors, readers, notetakers, or typists? Other factors to be considered when selecting a suitable college include location, level of competitiveness, program of study, size, cost, campus life, affiliation (e.g., religious), and other special features. To help a student evaluate a college, a student may wish to participate in a summer orientation session for students with disabilities or to enroll in a regular college course during summer school. This would allow students to experience the college, ask questions, and observe how well the campus is suited to meet their needs (Davie, 1990; Davis, Dollahan, Jacobs, Jaeger, & Marici, 1986; Dollahan & Jacobs, 1987; HEATH, no date:a). The staff at the National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities (1991a) developed a set of record- keeping guidelines to be used when contacting adult service providers and administrators of college programs. Because high schools do not keep permanent records, students should obtain copies of all high school transcripts, evaluations, tests, and therapist reports before leaving the school system. For the same reason, students should also obtain copies of any on-the-job training reports or other work experiences for later reference. Valuable information can be lost unless individuals take this precaution (Davie, 1990; HEATH, no date:a). When talking to agency or school personnel, students should keep notes of all conversations, rather than relying on memory; keep copies of any written correspondence; and save brochures or handouts from agencies and colleges (Valdivieso & Hartman, 1991). Students can then periodically review these notes and records and follow-up on incomplete or pending business. Timelines A few authors developed specific activity timelines for the transition from high school to college (American Foundation for the Blind, 1990; Davis et al., 1986; Dollahan & Jacobs, 1987; National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities, 1991c). For this monograph, the materials were merged and in some cases, adapted for students with visual impairments. Students, parents, teachers, and counselors can use these materials as general guidelines for completing tasks. Davis et al. (1986) and Dollahan and Jacobs (1987) also included specific examples of letters, checklists, and forms in their publications. A. Junior High School: 1. Become involved in career exploration activities. 2. Discuss interests and capabilities with school guidance counselor. 3. Participate in vocational assessment activities. 4. Read books, attend career fairs, and talk with people in the community about careers. 5. Make preliminary decisions about possible careers. B. Ninth Grade: 1. Create a four-year plan of study of preparatory classes for college. Review this plan with guidance counselor. 2. Remind guidance counselor to order standardized achievement tests in accessible format. 3. Keep lists of interests, personal characteristics, skills, and abilities. 4. Seek out career exploration resources including books, tapes, and catalogs in the school library and the guidance counselor's office. 5. Discuss occupations with guidance counselor and parents. 6. Participate in extracurricular activities, clubs, and organizations. 7. Identify part-time jobs and volunteer work performed by sighted and visually impaired peers. 8. Meet with vocational rehabilitation counselor at the state agency. 9. Include career exploration activities and broad vocational goals in annual IEP. 10. Obtain public library card, apply for membership in the Library for the Blind, and register with Recordings for the Blind. 11. Enroll in summer enrichment program (e.g., braille, typing, computers, O&M). C. Tenth Grade: 1. Explore interests, values, and decision-making strategies. 2. Develop a tentative list of colleges. 3. Identify colleges of interest and explore those schools' catalogs. 4. Identify academic and social competencies needed by students who succeed in college settings. 5. Reevaluate and adjust course of study as needed. 6. Complete an interest inventory, a prevocational evaluation, and an independent living evaluation. Review results with guidance counselor or teacher. 7. Complete standardized achievement tests and review results. Arrange for necessary tutoring. 8. Contact Social Security Office and determine eligibility for services. Apply for a Social Security number. 9. Apply for identification card from a state agency or the American Foundation for the Blind. 10. Meet with vocational rehabilitation counselor at the state agency to discuss vocational preparation and college plans. Include relevant goals in annual IEP. 11. Apply for reduced fare cards from local transportation systems. 12. Investigate careers by talking with people with visual impairments who are employed in those fields. Contacts can be made through the American Foundation for the Blind or other organizations. 13. Continue to consult guidance counselors, teachers, recent graduates, parents, adult friends, classmates, and college admissions officers about careers and programs. 14. Consider taking a part-time or summer job or becoming a volunteer. 15. Enroll in summer enrichment program (e.g., braille, computers, O&M, study skills, report-writing). D. Eleventh Grade: 1. September a. Identify additional sources of information about colleges. b. Meet with guidance counselor to review courses and to plan for senior year. c. Evaluate extracurricular activities. Include opportunities for leadership positions and developing skills. d. Consider taking a part-time job or becoming a volunteer. 2. October a. Register to take standardized admission tests. b. Continue to investigate careers by participating in job fairs, career days, and field trips. c. Meet with vocational rehabilitation counselor at the state agency to discuss college programs. 3. November a. Request college catalogs and review these and other descriptive materials. 4. December a. Discuss special testing needs with guidance counselor. Make preliminary arrangements for standardized tests in an assessable format. 5. February a. Discuss with parents plans and costs of attending college. 6. March a. Meet with guidance counselor and finalize the list of colleges to research and visit. b. Finalize arrangements for special testing and/or sign up for regular standardized tests. 7. April a. Write for information and college application forms. Obtain specific information (application procedures, time frames, type of financial aid, etc.) from college fairs or from meeting with admissions officers. b. Call and arrange visits to colleges. c. Sign up for achievement tests in subjects of special strengths if required by colleges under consideration. 8. May a. Continue to read, interview, and use computer searches and other sources of information about colleges. b. Enroll in a summer enrichment program or register for tutoring. 9. June a. Arrange visits to colleges. b. Prepare for standardized tests. E. Twelfth Grade: 1. September a. Reduce list of possible colleges. b. Obtain necessary letters of recommendations from teachers. Provide writers with addressed and stamped envelopes. c. Create a checklist of application deadlines. Review and mail applications according to those deadlines. d. Meet with guidance counselor to discuss academic and personal qualifications for colleges. Evaluate independent living skills by consulting with guidance counselor, teachers, and parents. e. Register for standardized tests and arrange to have scores sent to selected colleges. f. Meet with vocational rehabilitation counselor at the state agency to review community support services and to obtain information about state and national organizations. g. Review services available through vocational rehabilitation and develop an IWRP, if appropriate. 2. October a. Write necessary application essays. b. Meet with visiting college representatives. c. Continue to investigate careers through career days, college fairs, and job fairs. d. Register for scholarships including financial assistance available to students with visual impairments. 3. November a. Complete all early decision responses before deadlines. b. File early financial aid forms. c. Finalize personal essays, if required. d. Complete college interviews and visits. 4. December a. Complete financial aid applications to be mailed in January with tax information. b. Submit all applications with January 1st deadline. c. Send standardized test scores to colleges. 5. January a. Finalize and mail financial aid forms. b. Recheck senior courses and credits for graduation. c. Arrange to have mid-year reports sent to colleges. 6. February a. Recheck calendar from September and keep up-to- date. 7. March a. Rank colleges once acceptances begin to arrive. b. Revisit top college choices and review available resources. c. Inquire about financial aid and scholarships. 8. April a. Once acceptances arrive, select a college and pay deposit. b. Fight "Senioritis," because final grades do count. c. Notify high school guidance counselor about decision. d. Notify vocational rehabilitation counselor about decision. Keep counselor informed of dates, budgets, and college requirements. e. When accepted by favored college, contact the college's office of disabled student services to discuss needs and accessibility. f. Meet all health and immunization requirements. g. Submit housing deposits and completed forms. h. Confirm registration with Recordings for the Blind in order to obtain textbooks. 9. May a. Assess finances and plan how to pay for college. b. Notify all colleges of decision. c. Notify guidance counselor so that final grades are sent to the correct college. d. Plan for high school graduation. Legal Requirements Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires that schools which are recipients of federal funds must not deny benefits to students with disabilities, exclude from participation, or discriminate in the recruitment, admission, or treatment of students who have informed the college of their disability (HEATH, no date:b; U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, 1991). Colleges must also provide auxiliary aids and services during the interim when a person is being evaluated for eligibility; this is further discussed in the next section on "Admissions Testing." The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) "prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in the areas of private employment, public accommodations and services, transportation, and telecommunications" (HEATH, 1990a, p. 1). The effect of ADA on colleges will be renewed attention on disability access and a continuation of accessibility as mandated by the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The Association on Handicapped Student Service Programs in Postsecondary Education (no date) predicts that the effect of ADA will be increased enrollment by students with disabilities and increased use of campus education, recreational, and cultural facilities. Students with documented disabilities may request modifications, accommodations, or auxiliary aids to allow them to participate in college programs and activities. Colleges may not deny a service to a student with a disability if that service is offered to nondisabled students. Aids, benefits, and services are not required to produce the same level of achievement for disabled and nondisabled persons, but they must allow persons with disabilities an equal opportunity to obtain the same results, to gain the same benefits, or to reach the same levels of achievement as their nondisabled peers (HEATH, no date:b; U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, 1991). Unlike the services provided during elementary and secondary education, Section 504 only requires that colleges make reasonable accommodations. Students accustomed to special treatment in high school "may be surprised by the absence of such conditions on the college campus" (Rothstein, 1986, p. 256). Aids provided to accommodate students with disabilities do not have to be the most sophisticated, but they must be effective for that particular student. Aids or services should be selected in consultation with the students using them (HEATH, no date:b; U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, 1991). Colleges receiving federal funds must provide auxiliary aids needed for nonpersonal or classroom use, regardless of budget constraints or because college administrators believe that other organizations should provide the aid, benefit, or service. Aids and services for personal use (e.g., bathing, dressing, readers for individual study time) are not required to be furnished by the college. Colleges can seek financial help from outside sources, such as state rehabilitation agencies or private charity organizations. Vocational rehabilitation will provide funds for services to eligible individuals if funding is available. As a general rule, vocational rehabilitation funds are not available for graduate school. Colleges must provide aids to foreign students and to nondegree students (Rothstein, 1986; U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, 1991). Programs and activities must be located in the most integrated and appropriate setting. Students with disabilities must not be concentrated or isolated in settings segregated from the rest of the student body. Colleges cannot institute rules that limit the participation of students with disabilities (e.g., prohibiting tape recorders in classrooms or dog guides in campus buildings). Accessible and convenient housing must be provided at the same cost as available to other students. Students with disabilities must have an equal opportunity to benefit from financial assistance and from employment assistance. Students with disabilities should be provided with an equal opportunity to participate in intercollegiate, club, and intramural athletics. Counseling and placement services should be provided in a nondiscriminatory manner (e.g., qualified students with disabilities must not be counseled toward more restrictive career objectives than nondisabled students with similar interests and abilities) (U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, 1988). Rothstein (1986) suggested the following steps in confronting issues affecting persons with disabilities and avoiding liability: (1) Keep current on cases about disability discrimination claims; (2) realize that students, faculty, staff, and others are protected under the Rehabilitation Act; (3) maintain a good working relationship with the office for disabled student services; (4) work with the office for disabled student services to develop and implement workshops, training sessions, and other information networks; and (5) create a disability accessibility committee to plan, develop, or renovate major campus structures, provide consultation for programs, consider traffic patterns or new major facilities, and initiate programs to improve accessibility for people with disabilities. By acting in this manner, Rothstein believes that defendants can establish good faith in complying with Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Admissions Testing McLoughlin (1992) reported that, in general, students with disabilities do not perform as well as nondisabled students on measures commonly used by colleges to select applicants. High school grades, ACT assessment scores, and first-year college grades of students with disabilities are typically lower than those of nondisabled students (A.C.T., 1980). This might be perceived as an indicator of problems to come during college, however, Hurley, Hirshorne, Hunt, and Kavale (1979) found evidence that commonly used aptitude tests have almost no predictive validity for forecasting the achievement of students with disabilities. In a later report, Bennett, Ragosta, and Stricker (1988) found that students with visual impairments did perform comparable to sighted students on tests of academic ability (SAT, ACT, verbal scales of the WISC and WAIS, and Hayes-Binet and Interim Hayes-Binet intelligence scales, but their achievement test scores tended to be lower. This discrepancy may be due to differences in the groups of students with visual impairments taking ability and achievement tests (e.g., a higher achieving group may take ability tests while achievement tests are often mandatory for everyone), due to content or administrative procedures for achievement tests being less appropriate for students with visual impairments (e.g., group versus individually administered measures), or due to a real difference between general cognitive ability and accumulated academic knowledge. Any public or private organization that provides testing needed for licensure, certification, or credentialling that applies to the educational process cannot discriminate on the basis of disability. This includes agencies that administer the GRE, SAT, or ACT tests (King & Jarrow, 1992). However, the way in which adaptations are made and nondiscriminatory methods of reporting adaptations to college administrators are still being debated up to the present time. The College Board has provided special testing arrangements for students with disabilities since 1939 (Practical Guide, 1986). Modifications may occur for format (e.g., braille, large type, audio cassette, magnifying glass, abacus, typewriter) and for conditions. Modifications to conditions include extended testing time, extra rest periods, individual instructions or supervision, flexible test dates, separate test rooms or administration sites, readers, and transcribers. The use of calculators is forbidden by the College Board. Bennett and Ragosta (1988) suggested two other adaptations that could be used in admissions testing for people with visual impairments. First, complex graphical representations of data could be converted to a series of raised-line drawings. Second, test items could be rewritten to include greater details about the type and content of drawings. No information was available to determine if either of these methods have actually been used in a testing situation. According to Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, colleges receiving federal financial assistance must not discriminate in the recruitment, admission, or treatment of students. Colleges may not limit the number of students with disabilities. Colleges are also forbidden from using admissions tests or criteria that inadequately measure the academic qualifications of students with disabilities because special accommodation provisions were not made (HEATH, no date:b). In general, the courts have found that persons with disabilities cannot be excluded based on patronizing assumptions about their risks and abilities. Someone is more likely to be found "not otherwise qualified" when there is risk of harm or injury to other people rather than personal risk to that individual (Rothstein, 1986). Colleges are forbidden from making preadmission inquiries about disabilities (HEATH, no date:b). Under current practice, admission scores that were obtained using nonstandard formats (e.g., readers, magnification devices, cassette tapes) are "flagged." This practice makes college admissions officials aware that the test was specially administered and that it may not be entirely representative of the student's academic ability (Practical Guide, 1986). Rothstein (1986) considered the practice discriminatory unless the "flagging" notation was used for all tests given in a nonstandard format and not just for students with disabilities. Classroom Accommodations Problems in the Classroom and Beyond Students with visual impairments often have difficulty keeping up with reading assignments in college. Students who use large print, braille, or talking books often read at slower speeds than their sighted peers. Reading materials must be purchased four to six weeks before classes begin in order for the materials to be brailled or taped. Large print materials can be difficult to locate. When reading materials are assigned on short notice, students with visual impairments must rely on readers. Braille or recorded materials are generally not available on short notice. Readers are often not available for library work or for accessing research reports or short articles. Students listening only to recorded materials may have problems concentrating and understanding the structure of texts (Haugann, 1987; Spiers, 1992). The net result is that students with visual impairments have problems locating resources to keep up with their assigned reading and deviations from original announcements cause additional hardships. These hardships are not insurmountable, but they can cause delays and frustrations when trying to keep pace with the rest of the class. Besides problems reading texts and class materials, students with visual impairments face other barriers in reaching their educational goals. Students with visual impairments can have problems communicating with administrators and teachers, obtaining tests in accessible formats, obtaining accessible housing, obtaining accurate information, remaining mobile in a large and unfamiliar setting, locating transportation, and participating in recreational or athletic activities (Haugann, 1987; Spiers, 1992). Disabled Student Services Disabled student services were developed to ensure that college environments are physically, programmatically, and attitudinally accessible to any student with a disability. While these programs can be called by many names at different institutions, in this monograph, they will be referred to as "disabled student services." Some of the services provided include (a) removal of architectural and structural barriers; (b) counseling, advisement, orientation, and scheduling assistance; (c) academic support services (e.g., adaptive testing, provision of educational materials in alternate media, readers, scribes, notetakers, sign language interpreters, tutors); (d) educational assessment; (e) in-service training for faculty and staff to facilitate successful interactions with students with disabilities; (f) adapted transportation; and (g) accessible campus housing (Association on Handicapped Student Service Programs in Postsecondary Education, no date). Disabled student services may require that a student with a visual impairment schedule an on-site interview, one-day visit, and/or participate in summer sessions of orientation and course work before actual college enrollment. These experiences allow students with visual impairments to see for themselves the educational setting, the distances involved, the terrain of the campus, the range of services available, and the accommodations in residence halls and cafeterias. Students also have opportunities to meet with other disabled and nondisabled students (HEATH, 1989d). Overcoming Problems in the Classroom Many authors have suggested ways to accommodate students with visual impairments in the college classroom. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (1991); Barry, Brinckerhoff, Keeney, and Smith (1983); Brinckerhoff (1991); Fichten, Amsel, Bourdon, and Creti (1988); HEATH (1986); HEATH (no date:b); Hippolitus (1986); Ricker (1981a, 1981b); Ricker & Benefield (1981); Ricker & Rodgers (1981); Spiers (1992); and White and Maxson (no date) offered the following suggestions for helping all students (including those with disabilities) succeed in the classroom: 1. Organize and order all textbooks and supplementary materials at least three months in advance. Report any textbook or edition changes to the bookstore and the office of disabled student services as soon as possible. 2. Work with students so that materials for technical classes requiring special materials may be ordered at least one semester in advance. 3. Provide students with a detailed course syllabus that is available before registration week. Make class materials available to students in advance. 4. Select textbooks with study guides. 5. Encourage students to make appointments during office hours to self-disclose their disability. When students identify themselves as having a disability, the faculty member should ask how he or she can assist with their studies. 6. Modify and adapt curricula to allow a student with a disability to satisfactorily complete a course goal or assignment, but not compromise the content of the materials or lower program standards. Modifications must not give students with disabilities an advantage or disadvantage over their sighted peers. 7. Modify visually oriented assignments (lab observations, etc.) so that all students are involved in the same learning experience and have similar class responsibilities and laboratory assignments. 8. Communicate with students and with the office of disabled student services about making reasonable accommodations. When a needed service is unavailable, the institution must provide a reasonable replacement that offers the same assistance and that is acceptable to the student. 9. Make all assignments in advance. Give assignments in oral and written format to avoid confusion. 10. Clearly define expectations in advance (e.g., grading, material to be covered, due dates). 11. Announce reading assignments well in advance, because it takes an average of six weeks to tape record a book. 12. Allow students with visual impairments to be seated in the most advantageous place, wherever that may be. 13. Make space accessible, especially laboratories. 14. Identify yourself when approaching a student with a visual impairment and let that student know when you are leaving. Ask class members to identify themselves when participating in class discussions. Call upon students by name. 15. Begin lectures with an outline of materials to be covered during that period. Briefly summarize key points at the end of class. 16. Speak directly to students with visual impairments and use gestures and natural expressions to convey meaning. Do not speak through a third party. 17. Speak clearly. Write legibly. Be specific. 18. Face the class when lecturing. Standing in front of a window or other source of light makes it difficult to be seen. 19. Read aloud all blackboard, overhead transparencies, or visual diagrams in a clear and precise manner. Avoid words such as "here" and "there." 20. Present new or technical vocabulary on the board or with a handout. Use terms in context to convey their meaning. 21. Provide tactile versions of printed charts, graphs, and models. 22. Allow and encourage students with visual impairments to tape record lectures or use notetakers. Other technological devices (e.g., print magnifiers, talking calculators, machines that convert printed text into spoken words, and computer generated voice synthesizers) enable many students with disabilities to handle tasks that they would not otherwise be able to perform. 23. Avoid mimeograph printed materials. Students with low vision may be able to see better with clear black ink on white or pale yellow paper. 24. Let students know in advance about field trips or any changes to the classroom location. 25. Help students with visual impairments visualize their surroundings by familiarizing them with the layout of the classroom or workshop (especially, raised platforms, low- hanging objects, and exits) and specific tools, equipment, and materials. 26. When in doubt about whether or not to offer assistance, simply ask the student directly. Don't assume that you know what a student with a visual impairment knows or what they can do. 27. Ask students with disabilities which words and terminology are appropriate to use (e.g., "see," "hear," "walk"). It is appropriate to refer to concepts relating to a disability when the issue is related to course materials. 28. Provide adequate opportunities for questions and answers. Conduct review sessions. Guide students with disabilities to after-class appointments when the student requires more time than is available during the class period. The teacher may schedule a regular weekly appointment with the student with a disability. 29. Depending upon the situation, teachers may decide to either inquire about excessive absences or lack of class participation, or choose to ignore these behaviors. 30. Confront students about regularly occurring socially inappropriate behaviors. 31. Talk with volunteers and to students when the volunteer is doing a noticeably poor job or is offering too much help. 32. Provide study questions for exams. Explain what constitutes a good answer to a question and why it is a good answer. 33. Make arrangements for testing procedures and laboratory assignments in advance of actual test or assignment dates. 34. Continue to check with students to see "if everything is okay" and to remind them of adjustments that need to be made. 35. Recommend tutors (or other types of assistance) if the student appears to be having trouble. 36. Issue a failing grade when that is the grade earned by the student. 37. Encourage students to use disabled student services (e.g., pre-registration, assistance in ordering taped textbooks, alternative testing arrangements, specialized study aids, peer support groups, diagnostic consultation, study skills, and academic tutorial assistance). 38. Teachers may consult third parties when seeking professional information or resources about a disability. Teachers may ask students with visual impairments where they can find such resources. Students with hidden disabilities (hearing impairment or low vision) may be more reluctant than students with obvious disabilities (wheelchair user or person using a sighted guide) to approach a faculty member about test adaptations. Students with disabilities that fluctuate over time and those that are of a temporary nature, recur, or are precipitous may not be truly aware of the effect of their disability on class performance. In the same way, students who are newly disabled may be still adjusting to their disability and may be undecided about which adaptations work best for them. Some disabilities have periods of remission when no adaptations are needed and periods of acuteness when a greater number of adaptations will be required (Hartman & Redden, 1985). Students in these situations will vary in their need for adaptations over the course year. The student and teacher will have to work closely together to ensure that the right amount of assistance is available at any one point in time. Disabled student services can work with students with hidden disabilities to help them find ways of obtaining accommodations (HEATH, 1989b). Students with visual impairments who actively seek to obtain accommodations for their disability will be more likely to achieve their college goals than those students who simply accept whatever is offered them. Brinckerhoff (1991), Barry et al. (1983), Fichten et al. (1988), Hamilton (1989), and Spiers (1992) made the following suggestions to help students with disabilities succeed in the college classroom: 1. Talk to teachers before the beginning of the semester about the disability. Become knowledgeable and comfortable about describing the disability and learn how to self-advocate. All that is required in explaining a disability is what can and cannot be done in a typical classroom situation. It is not necessary to share personal medical histories with teachers or with other students. 2. Tell teachers about unusual amounts of class absences, if they can be anticipated. 3. Set realistic goals and priorities for coursework. 4. Students with disabilities who do not need special accommodations do not have to identify themselves. However, if needs change during the year, either due to the nature of the disability or to the demands of the class, it is the student's responsibility to identify him or herself and to request services. 5. Arrange for texts or non-exam class materials to be made available in an alternative reading medium. 6. Ask teachers to read what is written on the board or overhead projector. 7. Request approval from teachers to audiotape lectures when there is a difficulty taking notes in class. 8. Seek assistance from classmates for activities such as notetaking. 9. During class and during available office hours, ask questions and engage in discussions. 10. Let teachers know which words are permissible to use (e.g., "see," "hear," "walk"). 11. Discuss in advance how tests or in-class assignments will be handled. Do not wait until the last minute to tell a teacher about a need for readers, writers, a different format, or extra time for completing a test or assignment. 12. In general, plan on two hours of study time for every hour in class. Include study breaks to avoid fatigue. 13. If a tape recorder is used to read lectures, review the tape as soon after class as possible. 14. Make notes of any questions that should be answered before the next exam. 15. Contact the disabled student services office to obtain a list of services. Ask detailed questions about those services to insure that you understand what is actually being offered. Get information about advanced bookings, availability, and requirements associated with the receipt of services. 16. A student having trouble should seek help from the office of disabled student services and other campus support services early in the semester. 17. Students with disabilities are not required to participate in support groups, to be interviewed, or to take part in research projects or surveys in exchange for receiving services. Services received are based solely on the disability and the college's special services policy, not on a willingness to participate in extracurricular activities. 18. Expect to be educated, but also to educate others about people with disabilities and their abilities and needs. Some activities are inappropriate for either teachers or students with disabilities. Teachers should not warn students with disabilities that a course will be difficult for them to complete. Teachers may not later refuse to make promised adjustments. Teachers may not alter class formats in ways that impose hardships on other students (e.g., not turning off the lights during a slide presentation to accommodate a student with a hearing impairment who lip-reads). Accommodations to class formats should be made in ways that do not inconvenience other students. It is not the teacher's responsibility to arrange for non-exam materials to be taped or brailled. Teachers should not grant routine requests for extensions on assignments except when the delay is caused by the need for taped materials. Do not speak louder than necessary. Do not pet the dog guide. Teachers should not mislead students with disabilities into believing that everything is okay, when the student is obviously unable to master the materials (Fichten et al., 1988; Spiers, 1992). There are certain behaviors that are inappropriate for students with disabilities. Just as teachers should not allow certain behaviors, students should not assume those behaviors or make those requests. Students should not discuss their private or social life with their teachers; other college personnel, such as counselors, should deal with these issues. Students with visual impairments can use volunteer notetakers, but they cannot ask for the teacher's own notes. Students with disabilities should not request special consideration when a course is difficult and can still be mastered. Students may request an occasional extension of an assignment (especially if this policy is granted to students without disabilities), but they should not request a reduced work load or exemption from course requirements. Routine requests for extensions on assignments are not appropriate except in the case where students with visual impairments need taped materials (Fichten et al., 1988). Testing Accommodations Academic standards in the college classroom must not be compromised because of accommodations in testing procedures. Test results must remain valid and comparable to other students in the class. Modifications must be consistent; adaptations should eliminate disadvantages and not give students with disabilities an advantage (Hartman & Redden, 1985). Students with visual impairments must not be excused from taking tests, but must be allowed to experience and to grow from the same feedback about progress and overall achievement as other students (Brown, Keller, Lang, & Ricker, 1983). Simply stated, students with disabilities have the same right as other students to fail. Tests that are not adapted may not provide a true assessment of the ability of a student who is visually impaired. Tests should measure students' abilities and knowledge about a subject area and not their physical ability to manipulate testing materials or their reading speed. Students with disabilities may be at a disadvantage in testing situations because accommodations for the disability can make the test too long to complete in the specified time period, the format of the test cannot be used by the student, the test location is inaccessible, or the accommodations cause excessive fatigue for students with disabilities (Rothstein, 1986). Accommodation may not always be required because sometimes the requested accommodation affects the skill or aptitude being measured. For example, in tests of knowledge or expertise, speed is not a critical component; in tests of skill, speed is often a component of what is being measured (King & Jarrow, 1992). Other adaptations are not appropriate for other reasons. An example of an inappropriate adaptation is a teacher who allows a student with a disability to complete a regular in-class test in an unsupervised setting (e.g., a "take-home" exam). This gives the student an unfair advantage and prevents the student from making necessary educational choices based on a true assessment of his or her performance. Also, the teacher cannot be sure of whose work is being graded (Hartman & Redden, 1985). Many of the accommodations used in testing situations are low-cost (e.g., extended time or enlarged print available from a copier). Services that may cost money (e.g., braille print, reader) can often be partially or wholly reimbursed by an office or agency serving people with disabilities (King & Jarrow, 1992). Brown et al. (1983); Hartman and Redden (1985); HEATH (no date:b); and King and Jarrow (1992) offered the following suggestions for testing students with disabilities: 1. Allow enough time for students to demonstrate achievement. Because there are no rigid rules for determining the amount of additional time that should be allowed for adaptations, extended time should be flexible to permit "reasonable progress without dawdling" (Hartman & Redden, 1985, p. 4). 2. Enlarge regular size print while controlling for quality of contrast and available illumination. 3. When reading a test directly to the student or to an audiotape, read just the question and avoid interpretations. Give the test to the reader in sufficient time for review, especially if the test contains technical or scientific terminology. Provide the reader with a written description of graphs or charts to prevent the student from being given either too much or too little information about the figure. 4. Use the correct braille code when brailling materials (e.g., grade one, grade two). Only students who can read braille should be provided with braille materials. 5. Notetakers or proctors should record exactly the student's responses without reacting to his or her answers. 6. Proctors should be trained in ways of reading aloud, provided with practice in writing exactly what is dictated, and counseled about maintaining the integrity and ethics of the test situation. 7. Cassette tape recorders used in conjunction with talking calculators can record the steps and calculations used by students. Teachers can then ascertain whether or not an error was produced by a lack of understanding of the procedure or an error in calculations. 8. When spelling and punctuation are related to the course objectives, the student and teacher must determine a way for these items to be evaluated. 9. When a question arises about how to interpret a student- created diagram, the teacher can ask the student to describe the depicted diagram before assessing their answer. 10. Lab tests should be limited to the skills and procedures practiced in previous lab sessions. 11. Computer software programs or other technology such as electronic optical aids (Visualtek, Optican, Kurzweil) may be used during testing situations. 12. Students can record their answers using a typewriter, computer, or tape recorder. 13. If possible, give adapted tests in the same classroom and at the same time as other students are being tested. If the exam must be administered in another place, provide a setting that is conducive to concentration. 14. For objectivity's sake, the proctor should be someone other than the student's instructor, reader, or interpreter. Students may be especially intimidated by their own teachers administering exams. 15. Remove architectural barriers in the testing situation. 16. The frequency of tests may be increased. 17. Whenever there is a question about the use of an adaptation, a reliable outside person can help verify its need. 18. The use of any modifications should be agreed upon by all parties at the beginning of the semester. Colleges cannot decide on their own about the use of accommodations; agreement must be reached with the student. Computers It is important for all students, including those with disabilities, to become computer literate, because of the increasingly important role that technology plays in the career development and vocational maturity of individuals (Bender, Richmond, & Pinson-Millburn, 1985). Students with disabilities continue to have an increased need for computer access as computer use is integrated throughout college curricula. Creating an accessible mainframe computer system faces significant challenges. There is no one individual component or system which meets all the varied needs of students who are visually impaired. Most equipment requires supportive hardware (e.g., speech-output systems or display emulators) and software (e.g., braille translation programs or communication programs) to allow microcomputers to interact with the mainframe computer and/or produce displays in an accessible medium. Computer systems existing in different physical locations must be interfaced to the mainframe computer. Computer systems continue to be relatively expensive, even though the costs are decreasing (Kessler, 1984). In spite of these difficulties, students with visual impairments have the legal right to enroll in and attempt to successfully meet the requirements of courses using computers; the opportunity to write, edit, and produce class assignments without the need of sighted assistants; and the right to use computers in class projects where computers are not necessarily required (e.g., spreadsheets and management files). Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires that all students including those with disabilities have nondiscriminatory access to campus computers that are part of the normal college experience (HEATH, 1990b; Kessler, 1984). Science Laboratories Barrier-free laboratories and classrooms are usually easily and inexpensively created, they benefit all students, they are required by federal law, and they help supply the critical need for additional science and engineering professionals (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1991). A science teacher does not have to develop accommodations in a vacuum; a large group of experienced scientists and engineers have volunteered to share their experiences with individuals wishing to create barrier-free laboratories. The American Association for the Advancement of Science maintains a register of more than 1,200 scientists and engineers with disabilities who are willing and available to share information and coping strategies by either telephone or mail (HEATH, 1986). Because of the unique needs of individual students, teachers should always consult with the individuals involved to avoid costly and unnecessary adaptations. Ricker was involved in creating a series of adaptations for students with visual impairments enrolled in biology classes (Ricker, 1981a, 1981b; Ricker & Benefield, 1981; Ricker & Rodgers, 1981). The following techniques and equipment were actually used and evaluated by students with visual impairments: microprojectors, micro-slide-viewers, CCTVs, rear viewing screens, small projectors for individual viewing, modified syringes and balances; mounted syringes in ring stands to measure hazardous liquids, squeeze-type dispensers, REPIPET Jr. (plunger mechanism to dispense fixed amounts), audicator (audio liquid level indicator), tactile diagrams created through thermoform machines, tape recorded descriptions, modified plastic body parts, and pop-it beads. The advantage of many of these materials is that they could still be used by sighted students. The reports concluded with information about companies supplying the equipment and supplies. Ricker (1981b) also developed and evaluated audio scripts to be used with tactile diagrams in an introductory biology course which included students with visual impairments. He recommended that the reader begin with the details of the diagram and then build from those details to form a mental image of the entire object. The outermost parts of the diagram should be discussed first, then specific components could be located by using the terms "six o'clock," "top," "over," "below," etc. A specific sound could be incorporated to indicate that a new concept is being introduced. This would allow the student to stop the tape for review or additional study before proceeding to new material. The description should conclude with a summary to incorporate separate elements of the diagram into a mental image of the entire unit. A glossary in grade one braille should be developed separately to demonstrate the exact spelling of new terms. Students with visual impairments can be involved in almost all stages of laboratory work if appropriate adaptations are made. However, there are some activities which may be dangerous to the student or to others, regardless of the procedural changes. For example, a student in a chemistry laboratory must handle and dispense potentially hazardous liquids. Before a student proceeds in this activity, Ricker and Benefield (1981) cautioned that a teacher must decide if the student can demonstrate the correct use of the technique, if the student has a positive attitude with respect to his or her ability to perform the measurement, and if the physical arrangements of the laboratory permit the activity to be performed in an effective and safe manner. Laboratory activities incorporating the suggested tactile diagrams and verbal descriptions are only one part of the learning activity. Students with visual impairments are still expected to obtain information from textbooks and lectures, just like other students. Transition Programs Colleges and agencies recognize the need for quality transition programs to assist students with disabilities throughout the transition from high school to college. Several of these programs are briefly described in this section. Arkansas Enterprises for the Blind operates a college preparation course which covers mobility skills, communicative skills, activities of daily living, note-taking skills, relationships between students and teachers, test-taking skills, and accommodations for laboratory courses and physical education classes. During unstructured discussion times, the leader and students share ideas about potential problems including alcohol consumption, cheating, and relationships with other students. Notetaking techniques are emphasized because many of the students seem to believe that people with visual impairments have excellent memories and notetaking is unnecessary. To overcome this fallacy, guest speakers deliver sample lectures followed by difficult tests on the materials. Only after receiving a poor test grade do many of the students realize the importance of developing some sort of notetaking technique (Thume, 1979). The Evansville Association for the Blind (Indiana) sponsors an on-campus summer transition program at the University of Evansville which exposes students to the rigors of college life (e.g., living in dormitories, going through registration, and completing course work) while being taught how to solve problems and to overcome obstacles. The staff teach study skills, notetaking skills, effective reading skills, time management, daily living skills, and how to balance studies and social life. In addition, the students are exposed to a wide variety of career opportunities. For further information, contact the Director of Program Coordination, Evansville Association for the Blind, P.O. Box 6445, Evansville, IN 47712, (812) 422-1181. To reduce the high dropout rate among students with visual impairments, Monahan, Giddan, and Emener (1978) designed the "College Orientation Program for the Visually-Handicapped" to help students during the transition from high school to college. For nine weeks during the summer, students participate in an orientation program which includes O&M training; activities of daily living (personal hygiene, grooming, eating skills, self- care activities); communication skills (braille, mathematical aids, listening skills); overview of degree programs offered by the local colleges (Florida State University); physical fitness; and seminars on student services, library services, and institutional policies and procedures. Students in the program meet with other students with visual impairments and take part in general peer counseling programs. The program was helpful in assisting students to become successfully integrated into the sighted community and to overcome feelings of isolation and rejection. Woodward (1992) reported on the Center for Independent Living of North Florida and its success in enabling students with severe physical disabilities to graduate, find work, and live independently in the community. Students typically stay for two to three years at the Center, though some reside longer while in graduate school. By being located in an apartment complex inhabited primarily by other college students, students with disabilities are provided a normalizing experience. Services provided include housing, transportation, attendant care, case management, and independent living skills training. During the past five years, 850f the students graduated and obtained self- supporting employment. Tech Prep is a program designed to provide technically- oriented knowledge and skills to high school students with disabilities. The program emphasizes proficiency in math, science, communications, and technologies during the last two years of high school and the following two years of college. The goal of Tech Prep is for students to receive an associate degree or certification in a specific career field (National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities, 1991b). Brown and Brown (no date) designed a program to equalize college educational opportunities for women who are disabled. Subject areas include awareness issues, law, health services, counseling, residence life, and career services. Teaching materials contain practical suggestions for skits, discussion groups, reading materials, films, handouts, facts, and quotes. The staff of the HEATH Resource Center (1988) featured examples of transition programs offering services in training and employment, living arrangements, and levels of support. These various transition programs assist individuals in moving from high school to college, vocational training, competitive employment, continuing education, and adult services. Transition Resources The HEATH Resource Center is the national clearinghouse on postsecondary education for individuals with disabilities. The Center identifies and describes educational and training opportunities, promotes accommodations which enable full participation by people with disabilities in regular and specialized college programs, and recommends strategies which encourage participation in the least restrictive and most productive environment possible for each person. A free newsletter published three times a year highlights campus programs, provides information about new or pending legislation, and offers reviews of new publications and other media products. Resource papers, monographs, guides, and directories focus on disability-related issues in postsecondary education programs. The Resource directory: 1993-1994 (HEATH, 1993b) contains lists of organizations providing postsecondary education services for people with disabilities. Telephone numbers, addresses, and specific books, directories, magazines, and other publications are highlighted. HEATH staff can be reached at (800) 544-3284 or One Dupont Circle, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. The Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD; formerly known as AHSSPPE, Association on Handicapped Student Service Programs in Postsecondary Education) is a national, nonprofit organization which promotes the full participation of people with disabilities in college life. AHEAD sponsors workshops and conferences and publishes resource papers, guides, and directories. The AHEAD office can be reached at (614) 488- 4972 or P.O. Box 21192, Columbus, OH 43221. Baker and Cocchi (1987) listed services and products for people with visual impairments in the following categories: general and independent living, instructional access, maps, mobility, transportation, legal resources, low vision resources, scholarships and financial aid, adaptive computer equipment, adaptation of math and science equipment, and audio resources. The National Federation of the Blind (1981) published a guide for young people who are visually impaired beginning their postsecondary education and job careers (Postsecondary education and career development: A resource guide for the blind, visually impaired, and physically handicapped). Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act is quoted in its entirety followed by specific examples of implementation. The book addressed issues of admissions and recruitment, treatment of students, academic adjustments, housing, financial and employment assistance, nonacademic services, career choices, school selection, use of available services, use of rehabilitation services, and use of library services. Later sections of the book emphasized writing resumes, going to interviews, getting a job, and working toward promotions. Gibbs (1990) authored a book entitled Campus daze which informally described the experiences that freshmen encounter during the transition from high school to college. This book includes advice from older students, quotations, common and funny experiences that are to be expected or prepared for, useful anecdotes, and advice to parents and students. This book is useful for informing entering freshmen about social, academic, and emotional aspects of college life. While the book is directed toward nondisabled students, students with visual impairments will also gain insight about campus life. Although Transition tracks (American Foundation for the Blind, 1990) was designed to be applicable mainly to Georgia students, the strategies and many of the contacts and references to literature are useful for any high school student with a visual impairment, parent, teacher, or counselor. The resource manual describes programs and strategies designed to benefit students in transition. Included are information on high school programs; the rehabilitation process; career exploration; summer enrichment programs; and programs offered by colleges, technical schools, and public and private training programs. Also included in the manual is information on identification cards; the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program; Free Matter Mailing Privileges; educational financing; general information and assistance; parent organizations; counseling; diagnostic and evaluation services; respite care programs; miscellaneous services; and sources for books, tapes, independent living aids, and technology. The concluding section of the manual describes opportunities for independent living (including civil rights and the responsibility to register to vote), housing, transportation, dog guides, membership organizations, recreation and leisure activities, and other community services. Research Learning Forum Introduction A Research Learning Forum focusing on transition from high school to college was held in Tampa, Florida in February, 1992. The Forum was sponsored by the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision as part of a research project. Researchers, rehabilitation professionals, and consumers were invited to take part in two days of presentations and discussions. Experts from around the country presented information on transition from the perspective of rehabilitation agency administrators, college student service providers, administrators of college transition programs, and researchers. Information that is Helpful to Know Before Attending College Nineteen participants and seven presenters met in small groups to discuss a series of questions. They were first asked "What do you think is helpful for a college applicant with a visual impairment to know before going to college?" In the discussion that followed, the group decided that college applicants should have appropriate academic preparation, social maturity, self-knowledge, independent living skills, adequate resources, and knowledge of entrance requirements. Appropriate academic preparation. Specifically, college applicants with visual impairments should possess basic academic skills similar to other students, reading skills (regular print, large print, or braille including Nemeth code), organizational and time management skills, effective written and verbal communication skills, and test-taking skills using adaptive techniques. When studying, students should have mastered pacing, acquisition strategies, storage and data organization, memory retention and recall, notetaking, research, and participation in study groups. Students need continuing objective feedback to develop realistic attitudes about study outcomes. Most students will discover that some degree of computer and word processing skills are invaluable. Besides these objective skills, students should also have developed areas of academic interests leading toward a vocational objective. Social maturity. In the area of socialization, students should have acquired a level of confidence in approaching unfamiliar people, making friends, listening to others, and interacting with other people, especially roommates. Besides academic pursuits, college life contains its share of extracurricular activities. Recreational skills and interests outside the classroom allow students with visual impairments to participate in informal settings with their sighted peers. Students will benefit from acquiring stress management and self- protection skills and knowing someone else who will be attending the same college. Self-knowledge. Self-knowledge includes understanding the functional limitations of the disability, medical management, and knowledge of needed accommodations. Students who have learned how to self-advocate will ask questions, recognize when assistance is needed, and understand what to do when in trouble. The conference participants noted that college is a very competitive environment, and administrators and faculty are not always helpful to individual students. Therefore, students must realize that only they are responsible for themselves, their behaviors, and their outcomes. All students, including those with visual impairments, must deal with loneliness and separation from family and friends. Transition to college can be easier when students assume realistic expectations about college life. Independent living skills. A great deal of time and effort goes into teaching students about independent living skills. These skills include clothing care and repairs, food preparation, bathroom and toiletry skills, grooming skills, eating skills (cafeteria lines, restaurant), sex education, and budgeting and money management. Students require all these skills in order to succeed in college. Students should have developed good O&M skills to assist them in becoming familiar with a new campus, dormitories, and community. Students should explore the availability of transportation systems. Various residential options should be explored to discover the best fit between what the student needs and prefers, and what is available on campus. Students may want to explore employment opportunities both on- and off-campus. Adequate resources. Students should discuss their needs with personnel from disabled student services including the availability of notetakers, readers, accessible computer laboratories and equipment, adaptive devices, and low vision aids. Students should know how to order accessible books and materials from Recordings for the Blind or other sources of books and materials. Students may wish to explore the availability of funds and devices from vocational rehabilitation. The conference participants were in strong agreement that students should avail themselves of all opportunities to attend college preparation courses or summer programs, especially those offered through the office of disabled student services. Knowledge of entrance requirements. Regardless of the presence of a disability, all students must meet entrance requirements. Occasionally, these requirements may be waived for students with disabilities, but more than likely, the requirements will be the same or only slightly altered. Therefore, students should become knowledgeable about college requirements and registration processes. Students will want to explore the costs of attending a particular college and the opportunities for financial aid, including support from vocational rehabilitation. Students should also become familiar with scheduled events during the semester, such as periods when students meet with advisors, when payment of fees is due, when courses can be dropped or added, and holiday schedules. Guidelines and/or Qualifications Required by Rehabilitation Agencies The conference participants were next asked, "What guidelines and/or qualifications do rehabilitation agencies have for providing funding for college students?" In the discussion that followed, it quickly became evident that there were general requirements for all vocational rehabilitation agencies and specific requirements that varied by state. The participants agreed that all state vocational rehabilitation agencies generally require the following: (1) Meet all eligibility requirements for receiving vocational rehabilitation including being legally blind, (2) choose a vocational goal or objective leading to employment, (3) develop a signed Individualized Written Rehabilitation Plan, (4) demonstrate acceptable high school grades (generally, 2.0 grade point average), (5) enroll as a full-time college student (generally, 12 hours per semester), (6) apply for financial aid, and (7) be accepted into a college (individual schools may require ACT or SAT scores and high school graduation or its equivalent). Regardless of the student's qualifications, financial support through vocational rehabilitation is limited to the availability of funds. Specific state vocational rehabilitation programs may require the student to attend a college preparatory program or to write an essay on vocational goals before being accepted for vocational rehabilitation funding. Other states require that students demonstrate the ability to enter an academic environment. In those states, students must demonstrate communication skills, notetaking skills, travel skills, activities of daily living skills, and a positive psychological aptitude. Other states provide funds only for teacher preparation programs or related fields that emphasize working with people with visual impairments. Many states require that their students exhibit financial need, make an application to vocational rehabilitation a year or more in advance, or declare a major area of study prior to entering the program. Students may be required to complete their undergraduate work within five years. Funds may only apply to undergraduate school. Students will probably have to maintain on-going communication with the vocational rehabilitation counselor. The most important point in this part of the discussion is that state vocational rehabilitation programs vary significantly from one another. Students planning to attend college must carefully consult with their vocational rehabilitation counselors about specific guidelines and requirements. In addition, students and counselors must adhere to deadlines set by their particular agency. Important Areas to Include in the Research In an attempt to include items in the questionnaires that would answer the research questions and provide relevant information to service providers, conference participants were asked, "What is important for us [project researchers] to know about a college student in this study?" The conference participants suggested five general areas of inquiry: (a) demographics, (b) educational background, (c) family and personal characteristics, (d) relationship to agencies, and (e) college activities. Demographics. The participants wanted to know about the visual disability including age at onset, progression of visual disability, disease etiology, current visual acuity, and acuity in preschool years. In addition, they wanted to know about the presence of other disabilities, gender, age, employment history (including part-time and volunteer work), socioeconomic status, educational level of family members, marital status, presence of children, and routine mode of travel. Educational background. The participants believed that high school experiences were important in determining the ease of transition from high school to college. Consequently, they wanted to know about high school grades, intelligence quotient scores (I.Q.), and the type of high school attended (mainstreamed, residential, private, etc.). Method of accessing print materials was a particular concern. Specifically, they wanted to know about the reading medium commonly used, access to textbooks and class materials, and ease in obtaining accessible texts and materials. The researchers were encouraged to inquire about special instructional adaptations for different subject areas, use of adaptive equipment, contacts and resources for special services, adequacy of special services, and test-taking adaptations. Participants wanted to know about the type of assistance received from tutors and readers. Family and personal characteristics. The transition from high school to college can be facilitated by the level and quality of family support. Family support includes emotional as well as financial support. The participants believed that living away from home for any length of time eased the transition from home to college. They wanted information about a student's psychological adjustment, basic personality trait (whether passive or assertive), general level of independence, interaction with friends and family members, and sources of assistance when in trouble. Relationship to agencies. In relationship to vocational rehabilitation, the participants wanted to know the student's age at referral to an agency and problems encountered in maintaining contact with a vocational rehabilitation counselor. They wanted the researchers to explore the differences, if any, between agency sponsored and nonagency sponsored college students. The participants were concerned about financing a college education, including support received from vocational rehabilitation, SSI, and other benefit programs. College activities. Conference participants wanted to know if students had participated in any type of college preparation program and the program's effectiveness in preparing students for campus life. The participants wanted to know about students' general vocational goals, as well as specific courses of study, majors, and grades. They distinguished between required course loads and what the students perceived as an optimum course load. Extracurricular activities were of particular interest to the participants. They requested information about students' interests and hobbies, participation in organizations and consumer oriented groups (including American Council of the Blind and National Federation of the Blind), and social interactions with sighted and visually impaired peers. The choice of a place of residence was another concern of the participants (e.g., on- campus, off-campus, dormitories, private apartments). Preparation for Attending College The final question asked of conference participants was "How do you [college student] prepare for college?" General discussion centered around academic preparation, financial preparation, social preparation, and the actual entry into college. Academic preparation. It was suggested that students complete an interest inventory, attend college preparation programs, and participate in activities which might help them choose an area of study and prepare for campus life. Because many vocational rehabilitation programs require a decision about a specific area of study before receipt of funds, students may have to choose a major study area even before entry into college. If possible, students may wish to take a college course while still in high school. The participants believed that high schools and college preparation programs should provide instructions in developing listening and study skills as well as the more common term paper classes. Because of the long delays in obtaining accessible textbooks, students must order textbooks early and must be enrolled in college courses early. Students with visual impairments together with college teachers and administrators should discuss the availability of large print, braille (including Nemeth code), or audiotaped materials; readers; adapted equipment and supplies; and low vision textbooks. The participants stressed the importance of knowing how to operate a computer and being familiar with word processing programs before entering college. Financial preparation. Students wishing to pursue college should arrange for financial support at the earliest possible date. Many agencies and grant programs require applications to be made a year or more in advance of actual attendance. All males eighteen years of age, including those who are totally blind, must register for the draft in order to qualify for governmental financial aid. Students should develop a budget in partnership with parents, vocational rehabilitation counselors, college counselors, and other relevant people. Social preparation. The conference participants stressed the importance of a variety of socialization experiences in preparing students for college and later for work. These socialization experiences could include summer camps, vacations, and interactions with social groups and friends. Parental involvement was also perceived as an important element. Early prevocational experiences can help a student decide what types of work they would prefer and those that should be avoided. In terms of school programming, conference participants made two suggestions. High school students could "shadow" a college student with a visual impairment in order to experience a typical day from the perspective of a student with a visual impairment. College students with visual impairments could also be invited back to high school to talk with other students. Finally, the participants stressed that students must become organized because it is students themselves who are ultimately responsible for their outcomes. Entry into college. Students must complete all necessary paperwork (admissions, housing, financial aid, etc.) before deadlines. Students may have to undergo a medical examination. Upon admission to college, students should become familiar with the campus, sidewalk systems, cafeteria and food services, public and private transportation systems, recreational facilities and activities, and housing. Students will need to locate the office of disabled student services and inquire about any assistance that this office can provide. Students may wish to arrange for O&M instruction on campus while classes are in session. Attending college orientation programs as early as possible can provide much needed information for incoming freshmen and still allow time to make necessary adjustments. Epilogue Ideas generated by the Research Learning Forum were later used in writing the data collection instruments for this research project. The participants continued to assist the researchers by suggesting respondents, by reviewing questionnaires, and by serving as a general advisory board throughout the span of the research project. Methodology Questions Three questions guided the research process: (1) What do students with visual impairments need to know to attend college? (2) What are the specific steps that students with visual impairments need to take in order to successfully attend college? (3) Do skills, knowledge, and steps differ from the perspective of students versus program administrators? In order to answer these and other germane questions, the following procedures were followed. Procedures An extensive literature review was undertaken to identify materials relevant to students entering college. Since very little literature could be located which pertained to students with visual impairments, information on nondisabled students and students with other disabilities was included. Highlights of the literature review were presented in earlier sections of this monograph ("Making Plans to Attend College" and "Classroom Accommodations"). The literature review and the Research Learning Forum helped guide the researchers over the course of the study. Student telephone interviews and administrative mail surveys were constructed from the literature review and from the discussions generated during the Research Learning Forum. A report obtained from the Illinois State Board of Education (no date) was particularly helpful. Early drafts of these instruments were shared with participants in the Research Learning Forum and then revised based on their comments. The instruments were then field tested and revised once again. Copies of the two instruments are contained in Appendix A and B. Colleges serving students with visual impairments were identified through AHSSPPE (now known as AHEAD), the National Clearinghouse on Post Secondary Education for Individual with Disabilities, Liscio's (1986) A guide to colleges for visually impaired students, Thomas and Thomas's (1986) Directory of college facilities and services for the disabled, and Tweed and Tweed's (1989) Colleges that enable: A guide to support services offered to physically disabled students on 40 U.S. campuses. Research Learning Forum participants were asked to identify colleges and students that might be interested in participating in the survey. Two national consumer organizations with student chapters agreed to make the surveys available to their student members. A concerted effort was made to include students and colleges from all fifty states. While this goal was not met, the respondents do represent a wide geographical distribution across the United States. In order to adhere to confidentiality requirements surrounding the release of students' names, college administrators of disabled student services, two national consumer organizations, and other contacts were asked to share an introductory letter with students with visual impairments who were college juniors or seniors or who were upperclassmen in community (two-year) colleges. Business reply envelopes were included with each letter to make it as easy as possible for the students to respond. A copy of the introductory letter is contained in Appendix C. The researchers did not know the identity of the students until they responded by writing or by calling to say that they agreed to be interviewed. A response rate for the student surveys could not be calculated because of confidentiality requirements which protected the students' identities. A large proportion of the letters were inadvertently sent to incomplete or incorrect addresses. In addition, the lists maintained by the national organizations contained names of undergraduates, graduate students, recent college graduates, and people interested in the issues of college students. Nothing in these lists distinguished the upperclassmen from all the other groups. Therefore, many of the letters were delivered to people that did not fit the selection criteria (currently enrolled upperclassmen). Not knowing the response rate is unfortunate from a research perspective, however, because of the difficulty in identifying college students with visual impairments, this situation was unavoidable. Telephone interviews were conducted with 102 students over the course of two semesters. One trained interviewer conducted all the interviews which lent great stability to the interviewing process. General domains in the questionnaire included demographics; educational history; use of computers, specialized equipment, and adaptive equipment; resources; college preparation; problems adjusting to college; work history; and O&M skills. Respondents were not paid for their participation, however, results of the project were shared with anyone who was interested. At the same time that students were being identified and interviewed, another phase of the data collection was being conducted. A sample of college administrators of disabled student services were contacted by mail and asked to complete a short form. Business reply envelopes were also used with administrators in the belief that their use would increase the response rate. The sample was obtained from the two publications by Liscio (1986) and Thomas and Thomas (1986). Out of a total of 117 institutions, responses were received from 65, a 56response rate. This was achieved with one follow-up reminder by mail. Administrators were encouraged to send materials describing their support programs for students with disabilities. General domains in the mail survey included services provided by their colleges, institutional expectations, requirements for admission, and effects of the newly legislated Americans with Disabilities Act. Data from the two survey instruments were coded and entered into a personal computer for analysis. Initial runs were completed allowing the researchers to check and to clean the data. Selection of Upperclassmen to Represent "Successful" Students The literature review indicated that college students with disabilities demonstrate a high drop-out rate and experience an inordinate amount of difficulties while in college (Brown, 1990; Butler-Nalin et al, 1989). Students with visual impairments only have slightly lower drop-out rates when compared to other groups with disabilities. Most students (disabled or nondisabled) who leave college do so in the first one or two years. The researchers decided to limit the interviews to those students who stayed in college beyond the critical first or second year. Something about these students or their background set them apart from their peers who had dropped out earlier. The researchers recorded the experiences of these "successful" students and obtained background information about them in the hope that it would assist other students in preparing for college. Anticipated Results and Applications Results from this project will be used to construct questionnaires designed to collect information about new employees with visual impairments and their employers. Information from the two projects will be used to develop brochures and other materials describing the skills, knowledge, and steps necessary for students with visual impairments to successfully make the transition from high school to college and from college to the work place. Identification of the knowledge and skills needed for successful transition will result in more successful transition experiences for young people with visual impairments, will increase the effectiveness of colleges and their disabled student services, and will lead to the generation of new directions for research. Results of Student Survey Questionnaire responses were analyzed using frequency analysis, correlation analysis, and a limited use of factor analysis. A separate qualitative study of students' responses to two open-ended questions is reported in a separate section entitled "Qualitative Analysis" (page 79). Selected quotations from student respondents are included in this section to highlight particular results. A complete listing of student comments is contained in Appendix D and E. Demographics Out of 102 student respondents, 54were female and 46were male. There was a greater concentration of white students (86) than nonwhite (14). The average age of the respondents at the time of the interview was 25 years with a range from 19 to 50 years. While the American norm is to go straight from high school to college, many of these respondents delayed entry into college until they had worked for a few years. An extremely large number of students either lost their vision at birth or at a very young age. The average age when vision loss occurred was five years. Sixty percent had no vision at birth. An additional 625711400000st their vision by age four (in general, before entering school) while another 24 3.448920e-307xperienced vision loss by age 17 (in general, before graduating from high school). The most frequently reported primary eye diagnoses were diabetic retinopathy (26) and congenital anomalies (21) followed by disorders of the optic nerve (8), glaucoma (8), neoplasms (7), and cataracts (5). Only 17 people (16) reported any additional visual problems besides their primary diagnosis. Seventeen percent of the students were totally blind in both eyes. An additional 23ould only count fingers, see hand motion, or perceive light. The remaining students' visual acuity ranged from 20/20 to 20/600 (all respondents were legally blind). The average acuity level was 20/1023. A majority of students had no additional major health problems affecting their work or daily activities (74). When present, the three most commonly reported health problems were diabetes, hearing loss, and arthritis. Educational Environments While in elementary school, 8attended a separate school for the blind and 12attended a separate high school (Figure 1). The majority of students attended elementary and high schools with their sighted peers. Twenty-three percent of the elementary students met with an itinerant or traveling teacher, 17worked with a vision resource teacher in the regular classroom, 12 received O&M instructions from the school system, 7attended separate classes for students with visual impairments, and 9 received other services. During high school, 24met with an itinerant or traveling teacher, 23were assigned a vision resource teacher, 21received O&M instructions, only 2were placed in separate classes, and 14received other services. In the category of "other services," students received special equipment, large print textbooks, or extra time to complete tasks. The majority of students did not receive any special services for their visual impairments. The overall grade point average while in high school was 3.2 (with 4 representing an "A"). No one in the study reported a grade point average less than a "D". College Demographics These same students also maintained a 3.2 overall grade point average while in college (no one reported less than a "C" average). This high average is quite remarkable. While conclusions cannot absolutely be certain, it would appear that students with visual impairments who stay in college past the first year or two, perform very well in college. The student respondents averaged 17.6 hours per week in studies outside the classroom during the first semester in college. Seventy-four percent selected a major area of study before entering college (often required by vocational rehabilitation programs). While 580f the students have never changed their major area of study, the remaining 420fficially changed their minds an average of two times (unofficial changes were not recorded). The leading college majors were education and psychology (17 3.448920e-307ach), social work (7), business (6), and English, communication, sociology, health, or engineering (5 each). Twenty-two percent classified themselves junior college students, 33as juniors, and 45as seniors. During their first semester in college, they enrolled in an average of 12.3 course hours (ranged from 3 to 19 hours). They have been enrolled an average of 8.1 semesters since beginning college (ranged from 3 to 18 semesters). Reading Methods The students were asked about the methods they used to "keep up with classroom reading assignments." Fifty-nine percent relied on readers to access written materials. Only eight percent of the students used braille textbooks, but braille class materials were read by 17and Nemeth coded braille materials by 16 Large print textbooks were read by 170f the students and 38 3.448920e-307nlarged regular print materials by using a CCTV, Visualtek, or other device. Taped textbooks were used by 750f the students and taped class materials by 64 In addition, 240f the students described "other" methods they used, such as computers, color overlays, raised line drawings, and optical character recognition devices. Less than half of the students (37) had used a computer on a regular basis before entering college, but 73ow used a computer on a regular basis for their college classwork. Of the students not currently using a computer, 89would use one if a computer was available. It appears that computers will be of increasing importance to students with visual impairments. Work History Students were asked about their previous work experience including household chores, volunteer work, and paid employment. The majority of students had participated in the work force in some way by the time they were in college. During high school, 880f the students spent an average of 7.4 hours per week performing household chores. During this same time period, slightly more than half of the students (55) averaged 7.9 hours per week in volunteer activities. While still in high school, slightly less than half of the students (45) worked 17.2 hours per week for pay during their after school hours. During the summertime, 640f the high school students averaged 35.1 hours per week in paid employment. Twenty-nine percent of the students returned to college after first working awhile (averaged 42.5 hours per week). Fifty-six percent of the students averaged 22.8 hours per week of paid employment while attending college. Extracurricular Activities Students were asked about their extracurricular activities during college. Fifty-four percent participated in social groups or organizations, but only 12were members of sororities or fraternities (Figure 2). Forty-four percent took part in scholastic or academic groups or organizations and 27 0n career or job related organizations. About a third (34) participated in religious activities while in college. Students were less active in political groups (17) or athletic groups (15). Students were marginally active (17) with "other" types of special interest groups, such as music, the environment, or international students. One-third of the students did not engage in any type of extracurricular activity while in college. The remaining 67took part in extracurricular activities an average of 6.4 hours per week. These student respondents were not loners, but were active in one or another type of organizational activity. No questions were asked about informal activities. Mobility The most frequently used form of transportation on campus was walking (used by 750f the students). The other forms of transportation were bus or tram (9), automobile (6), bicycle (5), and handilifts (2). When going off campus, students relied more heavily on being driven in an automobile (45), a bus or tram (28), or walking (16). Less frequently used modes of transportation (off campus) were bicycles (5), taxis (2), or handilifts (2). Four students were wheelchair users. Slightly less than half of the students used a white cane (48). Forty-four percent relied on sighted guides at times and 14worked with dog guides. Future Plans When asked about their immediate plans for the future, 58 indicated their desire to finish college. An additional 2 wanted to continue in senior college and 20 0n graduate school. Twenty percent planned to work. Services and Equipment The student respondents were asked a series of questions about whether or not they used services or equipment provided by colleges. For reporting purposes, the 17 items were grouped into five general categories: (a) general services, (b) special housing, (c) specialized services, (d) equipment, and (e) alternative arrangements (Figure 3). The category of general services included services offered by a college health department, a college counseling office, and a college preparatory program, as well as transportation and tutors. Within this category, the most heavily used services were college health services (used by 550f the students), tutors (49), and college counseling services (46). Less frequently utilized college-provided services were transportation (30) and college preparatory programs (22). Since 750f the students used walking as their primary form of mobility on campus, there would, by necessity, be fewer utilizing college- provided transportation services. The second category of services consisted of one item, special housing arrangements. Only 110f the students availed themselves of this service. Students with visual impairments may be able to integrate with the general student body and consequently, have little need for special arrangements for housing. Job placement and O&M instruction on campus were the two items listed in the specialized services category. At the time of the study, only 200f the students used college job placement services. As the student body approaches graduation, their use of this service should increase. About a third (35) received campus O&M instructions. It is not known whether or not these instructions occurred on empty campuses or when other students and crowds were present. Colleges often provided equipment to their visually impaired students. Included in this category are a few of the more common types of equipment. Computers were used by the greatest number of students (69). Tape recorders were used by about a third of the students (34). Less frequently used equipment were typewriters (22), calculators (17), and electronic notetaker devices (6). A few students volunteered that their colleges provided a CCTV and a large print photocopier for their needs. It was not ascertained in this study what equipment was provided by vocational rehabilitation. Colleges frequently made alternative arrangements for their visually impaired students to take part in regular class activities. These tended to be heavily used by the students and were probably the least expensive and the least disruptive to campus life. Eighty-five percent of the students relied upon alternate test arrangements while 60took part in special preregistration activities. Thirty-fo