Commons Sense: A Viewer's Guide to the British House of Commons 

Table of Contents

Introduction

The British Parliament:
An Overview

The Structure of the
House of Commons

A Typical Day

The Commons Chamber

How a Bill Becomes a Law

Committees

The Commons Television System

Glossary of Terms

The U.S.-U.K. Index



Introduction

WE DO THINGS DIFFERENTLY on this side of the Atlantic," then Prime
Minister Margaret Thatcher retorted when an opposition member compared
politics in the United States and Great Britain.
     Since November 21, 1989, when the British House of Commons opened
its chamber to a nine-month television experiment, U.S. cable
television subscribers have had the opportunity to judge for themselves
the differences between the legislative systems in the two countries.
C-SPAN viewers, who have had access to televised coverage of the U.S.
House of Representatives since 1979, have seen a style of debate in the
British House of Commons quite different from that in their own
Congress.
     They've seen the pomp and circumstance surrounding the Queen as
she travels by horse-drawn carriage through the streets of London to
address the state opening of Parliament.
     They've watched the prime minister, Great Britain's political
leader, open himself to public questioning and criticism from other
members during weekly "Question Time" sessions.
     But the similarities are there as well. Both are bicameral
governments, with "upper" houses designed to carefully debate policy
and proposals, while the "lower" houses are designed to quickly react
to the needs and desires of their constituents.
     Both the U.S. House of Representatives and the British House of
Commons are presided over by a speaker, whose role is to maintain order
and direct members in the rules of their respective chambers.
The British Parliament, its rules and traditions dating back to the
13th century, has been called "The Mother of Parliaments." In fact,
many of the procedures followed in the U.S. Congress are based on
traditions established in the British Parliament.
     When the British House of Commons approved the permanent
televising of its sessions on July 19, 1990, it joined at least 60
other nations that allow some form of televised coverage of their
legislatures. Unlike the U.S. experience, where C-SPAN and C-SPAN 2
provide gavel-to-gavel coverage of the congressional sessions, coverage
of the Commons (and the Lords), appears only in edited form on nightly
newscasts and weekly legislative news programs.
     Each Sunday evening in the United States, "Question Time" sessions
air on C-SPAN. Other Commons debates air as news events warrant and as
the network's schedule permits.

The British Parliament: An Overview

THE UNITED KINGDOM has no written constitution--its parliamentary
government is based instead on traditions established over several
centuries. One of those traditions, and one of the key differences
between the British and the U.S. system, is that the political leaders
of the executive branch are members of the legislature and are
responsible to its elected body, the House of Commons. The other body
of the legislature is the House of Lords, where members are not elected
but serve by right of heredity, appointment, or position in the Church
of England.
     In this system, the word "government" refers not to the entire
national apparatus but to the executive branch, which includes the
prime minister, the Cabinet, and the other ministers. The length of the
term served by the executive branch depends not on direct elections but
on the support of a majority in the Commons. There, the government must
meet challenges from an opposition party that would take over as the
government, should the voters give it a Commons majority.

Powers of Parliament
Parliament is Britain's supreme legislative authority. Its three
elements--the Queen, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons--meet
together only on occasions of symbolic significance, such as a
coronation or the opening of Parliament. Yet the legislative process
must wend its way through all three parts before a bill becomes the law
of the land.
     Because it is not subject to the type of legal restraints imposed
on Congress or the legislatures of other countries with formal written
constitutions, Parliament is, in theory, free to legislate as it
pleases. It has the authority to make, unmake, or change any law, and
to overturn court rulings. If both houses agree, a Parliament could
even refuse to call elections and thus continuc meeting for as long as
it pleased. It would be as if members of the U.S. House of
Reprcsentatives, unfettered by a constitutional requirement that they
be chosen by the people every two years, had the power to suspend
elections and thus continue meeting indefinitely.

The sovereign
has the right to
be consulted.
the right to
encourage. and
the right to warn,
but the right to
veto has not
been used since
1707.



     In practice, however, Parliament does not act in this way, and
tends instead to adhere to precedent and tradition. Moreover, both
houses are sensitive to public opinion, and, although the validity of
an act of Parliament that has been duly passed and properly
communicated cannot be disputed in the courts, no Parliament would
likely pass an act which it knew would receive no public support.

Role of the Crown
Parliament's legal existence depends on the exercise of the royal
prerogative, that is, the power in the hands of the crown. However, the
authority of the sovereign with respect to Parliament, including the
power to call or dismiss it, is exercised on the advice of the Queen's
government ministers and is subject to change and limitation.
     The sovereign summons Parliament by royal proclamation and
prorogues it (orders it discontinued until the next session) or
dissolves it (terminates it for new elections). At the beginning of
each new session the Queen arrives at the House of Lords, where both
the Lords and Commons assemble, and opens Parliament in person. The
Queen's speech, drafted by the office of the prime minister, outlines
the government's legislative program for the upcoming session.
     Royal assent is required for legislation to take effect, yet it
has become mostly a formality. The sovereign has the right to be con-
sulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn, but the right to
veto has not been used since 1707.

The House of Lords
With a current potential membership of more than 1,220, the House of
Lords is perhaps the largest legislative body in the world. But its
strength in numbers belies its relative place in Parliament, where the
popularly elected House of Commons has become the center of
parliamentary power. The Commons' preeminent role in taxation and
expenditure dates from the early 15th century, yet until the 20th
century the Lords' power of veto was theoretically unlimited. Today,
the House of Lords' primary purpose is deliberation and revision; bills
dealing exclusively with expenditure or taxation can become law without
its consent, and its power to delay bills is limited to one year.
     The House of Lords consists of the lords spiritual, comprising the
archbishops and senior bishops of the Church of England, and the lords
temporal. These are (1) the hereditary peers and peeresses, who hold
their positions by right of birth; (2) the life peers and peeresses
appointed by the crown; and (3) the lords of appeal, or law lords, who
assist the House in its judicial duties.

     In practice, however, Parliament does not act in this way, and
tends instead to adhere to precedent and tradition. Moreover, both
houses are sensitive to public opinion, and, although the validity of
an act of Parliament that has been duly passed and properly
communicated cannot be disputed in the courts, no Parliament would
likely pass an act which it knew would receive no public support.

The sovereign
has the right to
be consulted.
the right to
encourage, and
the right to warn,
but the right to
veto has not
been used since
1707.

Role of the Crown
Parliament's legal existence depends on the exercise of the royal
prerogative, that is, the power in the hands of the crown. However, the
authority of the sovereign with respect to Parliament, including the
power to call or dismiss it, is exercised on the advice of the Queen's
government ministers and is subject to change and limitation.
     The sovereign summons Parliament by royal proclamation and
prorogues it (orders it discontinued until the next session) or
dissolves it (terminates it for new elections). At the beginning of
each new session the Queen arrives at the House of Lords, where both
the Lords and Commons assemble, and opens Parliament in person. The
Queen's speech, drafted by the office of the prime minister, outlines
the government's legislative program for the upcoming session.
     Royal assent is required for legislation to take effect, yet it
has become mostly a formality. The sovereign has the right to be con-
sulted, the nght to encourage, and the right to warn, but the right to
veto has not been used since 1707.

The House of Lords
With a current potential membership of over 1,220, the House of Lords
is perhaps the largest legislative body in the world. But its strength
in numbers belies its relative place in Parliament, where the popularly
elected House of Commons has become the center of parliamentary power.
     The Commons' preeminent role in taxation and expenditure dates
from the early 1 5th century, yet until the 20th century the Lords'
power of veto was theoretically unlimited. Today, the House of Lords'
primary purpose is deliberation and revision; bills dealing exclusively
with expenditure or taxation can become law without its consent, and
its power to delay bills is limited to one year.
     The House of Lords consists of the lords spiritual, comprising the
archbishops and senior bishops of the Church of England, and the lords
temporal. These are ( 1) the hereditary peers and peeresses, who hold
their positions by right of birth; (2) the life peers and peeresses
appointed by the crown; and (3) the lords of appeal, or law lords, who
assist the House in its judicial duties.

There is no fixed number of members. Because many eligible members do
not exercise their right to attend, the actual membership is about 900,
but average daily attendance is only about 320. Members receive no
salary for their parliamentary work, but are entitled to reimbursement
for certain traveling expenses.
     Although most government ministers are members of the House of
Commons, about 20 are drawn from the House of Lords so that the
government's policies can be laid before that body. The number of
Cabinet ministers in the Lords varies, usually between two and four out
of a total of 20.
     The House of Lords is presided over by the lord chancellor. He is
the speaker of the House and also, as head of the judiciary, a Cabinet
member. He is recommended for appointment by the prime minister.
In addition to its parliamentary position, the House of Lords is the
final court of appeal for civil cases in Britain and for criminal cases
in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. About 80 cases are heard each
year.

Unlike the speaker of the Commons, the lord chancellor maintains a role
in his political party. As lord chancellor, he is also head of the
judiciary and a member of the prime minister's cabinet.
First of officially
used in 1236,
the word
"parliament"
originally meant
a meeting for
parley or
discussion.

Rise of the House of Commons
Since its origins in the fifth century, the English crown has relied on
assemblies of leading men for advice and assistance in running the
government. After the conquest of England by William the Conqueror in
1066, the Normans formalized the practice with the Great Council, which
met three or four times a year when the king called it. An inner
circle, comprising officers of the royal household with whom the king
had ready access, developed as the King's Court. As the two agencies
grew further apart and the volume of government business increased, the
King's Court began to draw in lawyers, financiers, and other
specialists, and distinct branches of administration began to develop.
But the ability of the king to control the machinery of government soon
began to weaken, and in 1215 the barons forced KingJohn to agree to
concessions protecting their rights against abuse of the royal
prerogative. The charter, later called the Magna Carta, served as the
expression of the rights of the community against the crown.
     During the 13th century several kings found that the ordinary
sources used to meet government expenses-their private revenues and
emergency aid grants from their barons--were no longer sufficient. To
raise funds, they summoned to the Great Council not only the leading
men from the kingdom but also representatives from counties, cities,
and towns. In this way the Great Council came to include those who were
summoned by name and those who were representatives of communities (the
commons). The two parts, together with the sovereign, eventually became
known as Parliament. The word "parliament" was first officially used in
1236, and originally meant a meeting for parley or discussion.
     Meetings of these early parliaments usually took place wherever
the king was at the time. In London they were opened in the "Painted
Chamber" of the king's palace. The king sat on the throne at one end,
surrounded by his ministers. The lords sat according to rank on
benches, and the commons stood or knelt at the far end. After they had
heard the king's request, the lords and commons withdrew to separate
meetings to deliberate, and then reassembled to report their decisions
through a designated spokesman. (The first reference to a speaker in
the rolls of Parliament is 1377.) The eventual result was two houses:
the Lords and the Commons.
     As time went on, the Commons began to use its strength as a source
of funds for leverage in the legislative field. Having already won the
right to present petitions to the crown, the lower house began to make
its aid grants contingent upon a response. Thus did the law-making and
taxing powers begin to pass to the Commons, but the flow of authority
was not uninterrupted.
     In the 17th century Charles I, insisting on his divine right to
rule, first tried to coerce Parliament and then dispensed with it for
11 years. Having failed to raise his necessary revenues, he recalled it
in 1640, but civil war followed two years later. Originally intent on
compelling the king to keep his promises and govern according to law,
the parliamentary party, after successes on the battlefield, radically
expanded the scope of its program. Charles was executed in 1649; the
monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished; and the country was
proclaimed a republic. But the experiment did not survive the death of
its leader, Oliver Cromwell, and in 1660 Charles' heir assumed the
throne as Charles 11.
     The rapprochement between crown and Parliament was short-lived.
Charles' successor, James 11, prorogued Parliament for the duration of
his reign and attempted to lay aside laws it had passed. In 1688 a
group of leading men invited William, Prince of Orange, to take the
throne.James fled, and a year later a convention of Parliament (so
named because it was not summoned by the king) established William and
his wife Mary as joint sovereigns.
A significant feature of the 1689 Parliament was its passage of the
Bill of Rights, which not only reaffirmed Parliament's claim to control
taxation and legislation but also firmly established the Commons, by
virtue of its role as the source of financial authority, as the
predominant house.
The authority of Parliament was further manifested in 1701 by the Act
of Settlement, which laid down explicit rules ensuring a Protestant
succession. The lasting impact of the act was to lay to rest theories
of any nghts to the throne independent of the law.

While the Parliament assumed the legislative role, the administrative
functions remained with the sovereign and his appointed ministers to
exercise. This arrangement, in place at the beginning of the 18th
century, ensured a system of balance in which each needed the other; it
also allowed either to obstruct the other's work. A link between the
two was found on a Cabinet of ministers appointed by the sovereign but
with a sufficient number of supporters in the House of Commons to pass
the government's legislation and vote the taxation. This arrangement is
the essence of the system today.

The Structure of the House of Commons

A PARLIAMENT LASTS FOR FIVE YEARS and is divided into sessions of one
year each. A session is terminated by prorogation, i.e., by the crown
using the royal prerogative, and all parliamentary business is brought
to an end. Any unfinished public bills lapse and have to be
reintroduced in the next session.

Parliament is dissolved at the end of its five-year term, but a
government can request a dissolution before the expected end date. In
each case, the dissolution is by royal proclamation, although it is
customary for the prime minister to personally announce the
dissolution.

Meeting Days and Times
The average number of meeting days for the House of Commons in each
session is about 175, divided into the following periods:

ù November to Christmas, lasting about 40 sitting days;
ù January to Easter, about 50 days;
ù Easter until the late (English) Spring Bank Holiday at the end of
May, about 30 days;
ù June until lateJuly or early August, about 40 to 50 days.
ù In addition, recent sessions have been concluded with a short period
in October, after the long summer recess.

The Commons meets in Westminster Mondays through Thursdays from 2:30 pm
London time until 10:30 at night, and Fridays from 9:30 am until 3:00
pm. At the present time, however, the Commons very often sits later
than 10:30 pm Monday through Thursday, and all-night sittings are not
uncommon.

Like their American counterparts in Congress, who must accommodate
committee, party, and constituency business into their schedules,
members of Parliament are not expected to be in constant attendance in
the chamber. Although some members may leave the House altogether for a
few hours, the majority remain nearby so as to be able to attend for a
vote.
When it has
control of the
Parliament and.
therefore, the
government. a
disciplined
majority party is
virtually assured of
seeing its
legislative
program through
to fruition.


Current Party Breakdown
There are 651 seats in the House of Commons; 524 for England,38 for
Wales,72 for Scotland, and 17 for Northem Ireland. The Conservative
Party has held a majority of the seats since 1979. As of the fall of
1993, the party breakdown in the House of Commons was as follows:


Conservative                                336
 Labor                                      270
 Liberal Democrats                          20
 Social Democratic and Labor                 4
 Scottish National                           3
 Plaid Cymru (Welsh Nationalist)             4
 Ulster Unionist (Northern Ireland)          9
 Democratic Unionist (Northern Ireland)      3
 Ulster Popular Unionist (Northern Ireland)
 Speaker

Political Parties

     The system of government in Britain has developed in such a way as
to give political parties a paramount role. When it has control of the
Parliament and, therefore, the government, a disciplined majority party
is virtually assured of seeing its legislative program through to
fruition.
     This strong party system has developed only over the past 100
years. Designations such as "Whig" and "Tory" once described certain
political leanings rather than organized parties, and political
groupings in the House of Commons fell along the rough lines of support
or opposition to the king's government, not party affiliation. With a
severely restricted right to vote, and thus a small pool of eligible
voters (only about 500,000 out of an adult population of 10 million), a
candidate's personal influence counted for more than the policy of a
party. And once he was elected he was under no obligation to follow a
party line.
     With the expansion of the franchise came modern political parties.
Politicians who had once run as individuals began to form cohesive
parties, pledged to carry out a definite program based on principles
with which their supporters agreed. This political organization has
been based on a mostly two-party system, first with Whigs and Tories,
then Liberals and Conservatives, and now Labor and Conservatives
alternating in power. Since 1945 eight general elections have been won
by the Conservatives and six by Labor, and the great majority of
members have belonged to one or the other of these two parties.

Elections
Elections are held almost immediately following a Parliament's
dissolution. The unbroken continuity of Parliament is assured by the
fact that the same proclamation that dissolves the existing Parliament
calls for the election of a new one.
     Elections are held much more frequently to fill seats of retiring
or deceased members, or those who have been elevated to the House of
Lords. The timetable of a general election is:

(1) royal proclamation dissolving the old and calling the new
Parliament;
(2) issue of writs of election, usually the same day;
(3) publication of the notice of election, not later than the second
day after that on which the writ is received;
(4) delivery of nomination papers, not later than the sixth day after
the royal proclamation;
(5) election day, on the 11th day after the last day for delivery of
nomination papers.

The number of days indicated above excludes Saturdays, Sundays, and
certain other days. Thus, a general election usually takes place three
to four weeks after its announcement.
     The candidate with the largest number of votes--a simple ma-
jority--wins election to the constituency's seat in the House of
Commons. In 1992 the average number of electors for each country of the
United Kingdom was 69,534 for England,58,383 for Wales,54,570 for
Scotland, and 67,145 for Northern Ireland. The constituency with the
largest electorate (as of 1993) was the Isle of Wight, with 99,838
electors; the smallest was Western Isles in Scotland, with 22,784.
In the last national election, in 1992, 76.3 percent of Britain's 43.6
million eligible voters went to the polls.

Government and Opposition
The party that wins the most seats (though not necessarily the most
votes nationwide), or which has the support of a majority in the House
of Commons, is usually invited by the sovereign to form a government.
If no party succeeds in winning an overall majority of seats, a
minority government may be formed. By tradition, the leader of the
majority party is appointed prime minister by the sovereign and chooses
a team of ministers, including a Cabinet of about 20 members.
     The party with the next largest number of seats is officially
recognized as "Her Majesty's Opposition," and has its own leader and a
"Shadow Cabinet" ready to assume the responsibilities of government.
Members of other parties support or oppose the government according to
their party's philosophy or their own views on particular matters.
Because the official opposition is a minority party, it rarely succeeds
in introducing or amending legislation; however, its pronouncements and
policies are important since it is considered to be a potential
government.

Layout of the Chamber
The arrangement of seating reflects the competitive nature of the party
system. The chamber is rectangular, is overlooked by galleries, and has
at one end the seat of the speaker (in front of which stands the table
of the House) and the other end the "bar," consisting of two bronze
rods. The benches for members run the length of the chamber on opposite
sides, separated by the distance of "two drawn swords." The benches to
the right of the speaker are used by the government and its supporters;
those to the left are occupied by the opposition and members of any
other parties.
     Leaders of the government and opposition sit on the front benches
of their respective sides with their supporters (the backbenchers)
sitting behind them. With room for only 346 members of the benches,
backbenchers may also sit in the side galleries, which can accommodate
an additional 91 members. The galleries also provide space for
visitors, the press, and government and parliamentary officials.

Speaker of the House
The chief officer of the House is the speaker. He or she is the
representative of the Commons in its relations with the crown, the
Lords, and other authorities, and presides over the House and enforces
all rules that govern its conduct.
     In electing the speaker, the government, after consultation with
the opposition, puts forward the name of a member acceptable to all
sections of the House. The nomination is then proposed and seconded by
backbenchers.
     The quality most essential to a speaker is strict impartiality,
and one of his or her most important duties is to protect the rights of
minorities and to ensure that their voices are heard. All members look
to the speaker for guidance in matters of procedures, and he or she
decides points of order rulings when required. The speaker remains
apart from party colleagues and any single groups or interests.
     The speaker does not, for instance, eat in the House of Commons
dining room or attend meetings of parties or other interest groups. At
the polls, he or she runs not as a member of a party but simply as "the
speaker seeking re-election." Like other members the speaker attends to
constituency matters but does not speak or vote in the House, and even
after retirement takes no part in political issues.
     It has become accepted that once the speaker has been elected in
one Parliament he or she is re-elected in subsequent Parliaments, and
thus remains in office until retirement or death.
     Other officers are the chairman of ways and means and two deputy
chairmen, all of whom may act as deputy speaker.
The leader of the House of Commons is responsible for organizing
Parliament business. One of his jobs is to announce the following
week's agenda, usually at 3:30 pm on Thursdays.

Whips
The term "whip" derives from the tradition of fox hunting, where
whippers-in or whips would look after the hounds to prevent them from
straying. Whips keep members informed of upcoming parliamentary
business, maintain their party's voting strength by ensuring that
members attend important debates, and convey to the party leadership
the backbenchers' opinions.
Each party has its own chief whip; the two main parties also have a
deputy chief whip and a number of junior whips.
     The government chief whip is directly answerable to the prime
minister and the leader of the Commons. Under the authority of the
leader, the chief whip attends the Cabinet and makes the daily
arrangements for the government's program. This involves estimating the
time likely to be required for each item and discussing arrangements
with the opposition.
     The government and opposition chief whips, who hold frequent
consultations, together constitute the "usual channels" often referred
to when the question of finding time for debating an issue or other
parliamentary arran~ements are discussed.

Party Committees
The most important assembly of the Conservative Party in Parliament is
the Conservative and Unionist Members' Committee, popularly known as
the 1922 Committee for the year in which it was formed. It meets once a
week and comprises the entire backbench membership of the Conservative
Party in the Commons. (House of Lords members meet separately.)
     Although it does not formulate policy, it serves as a sounding
board of Conservative opinion, and it is upon this committee's support
that the leader's position in the party depends.
     The Parliamentary Labor Party (PLP comprises all Labor members in
both houses. When Labor is in office, a liaison committee acts as a
channel of communication between the government and its backbenchers.
When the party is in opposition, the PLP is organized under the
direction of the elected Parliamentary Committee (often referred to as
the "Shadow Cabinet"). Meetings are held twice a week; broad outlines
of policy are discussed and important decisions sometimes made. Party
leaders attend, whether Labor is in or out of office.

Party Organizations
Both Conservative and Labor members have a policy committee system,
organized around subject areas roughly corresponding to those of
government departments. Both main parties have about 20 of these
groups.

Departments of the House
The Commons has six administrative departments:
ù The Department of the Clerk of the House advises the speaker and
members (including ministers) on practice and procedure. The clerk of
the House is appointed by the crown, and, along with the clerk
assistant, sits at the table of the House during Commons debate.
ù The Department of the Sergeant at Arms deals with order and security.
The sergeant at arms, appointed by the crown, is the official
housekeeper of the Commons.
ù The Department of the Library provides members with information they
need for their parliamentary duties.
ù The Department of the Official Report records all sittings of the
House and its standing committees, and produces the Official Report,
popularly known as the Hansard.
ù The Administration Department deals with pay for members and staff,
personnel matters, and computers.
ù The Refreshment Department provides eating and drinking facilities
for members and staff. Service is available whenever the House is
sitting, no matter how late.

Together, the six departments employ about 900 full-time and 200
part-time staffers.

Typical Day

PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE is covered not by any comprehensive code but by
the unwritten rules that have developed in the course of business over
the centuries. Modern practices often grow out of rulings given by the
speaker or other occupant of the chair.
     A quorum is not required for the transaction of business, but if
fewer than 40 members take part in a vote, the business under
consideration is held over until the next meeting.
     The business of the Commons is set out each day in the Order
Paper. Except on certain days reserved for backbenchers, the
government, after consultation with the opposition, determines the
order in which matters will be considered.

Opening Prayer
Proceedings open at 2:30 pm London time Monday through Thursday and at
9:30 am on Fridays with prayers read by the speaker's chaplain. After
prayers the speaker takes the chair

Private Business
Up to 10 minutes are available for certain businesses such as the
consideration of private bills, which are bills promoted by local
authorities or other public or private corporations.

Question Time
If there is no private business, Question Time begins after opening
prayers (but no later than 2:45 pm) and ends at 3:30 Monday through
Thursday. Oral questions are not taken on Fridays.
The speaker calls the name of the member who has Question 1 on the
Order Paper. The member does not read out the question since it is
printed on the paper; he merely says "Number one, sir."
     The minister to whom the question is addressed, standing at the
government dispatch box, reads a prepared reply. Ministers from some of
the large departments are often accompanied by several junior ministers
who share the task of answering questions. Members may then ask
supplementary questions. The speaker will usually call first the member
who asked the question, then alternate between government and
opposition sides for further supplementaries for as long as he or she
thinks appropriate. Then the speaker calls the next question, and so on
to the end of Question Time. Any question not covered that day receives
a written response in the Official Report (the Hansard).
     On a given day 15 to 20 questions are answered orally. The process
for asking a question begins about two weeks in advance of the day it
may be answered on the floor. A member gives notice of, or "tables," a
question by giving it to the clerks in the Table Office. The question
must meet certain requirements: It must be framed as a genuine question
and not as a statement or speech; it must not seek the interpretation
of a statute or legal opinion; it must not ask for information already
published or for the confirmation of a rumor or press report; it must
not be "tendentious, controversial, ironic, vague, frivolous, or repet-
itive"; and it must be concerned with a matter for which a minister is
officially responsible.
     Ministers are questioned on a rotating basis agreed to by the
government and opposition chief whips. Each major department is
allocated to a particular day of the week, together with three or four
others.
     The sequence in which a day's questions will appear on the Order
Paper is determined by a drawing called the "four o'clock shuffle." Ten
sitting days before particular departments are scheduled to respond to
oral questions, all questions addressed to those departments are
shuffled, drawn out one by one, and numbered consecutively. This is the
order in which questions will be answered that day. Because many more
questions are tabled than will be answered on the floor, it is
important to a member that his question be near the top of the list.
During Question Time the ministers respond to a type of question called
the "question for oral answer," one of three categories of questions.
The others are the "private notice question," which can only be asked
if its subject matter is judged by the speaker to be urgent and which
is taken orally in the House at the end of Question Time, and the '
question for written answer," to which response is printed in the
Hansard.
     Although its primary purpose is to give the Commons an opportunity
to examine the government's activities, Question Time also allows the
govemment, through answers to "inspired" questions, to make a public
statement on a certain matter.


The process for asking a question begins about two weeks in advance of
the day it may be answered on the floor. A member gives notice of or
"tables" a question by giving it to the clerks in the Table Office.


Questions to the Prime Minister
On Tuesday and Thursday afternoons, the final 15 minutes of Question
Time. beginning at 3:15, are devoted to questions for the prime
minister.
     Because it affords an opportunity to hear from the nation's
preeminent political figure, and because the exchange can be unscripted
and freewheeling, the prime minister's Question Time is the segment of
Commons' proceedings most likely to be telecast live on a continuing
basis by the British news media.
     One particular question is frequently asked: Will the prime
minister list official engagements for the day? Once the prime minister
responds, the questioning member can put as a supplementary or
follow-up almost any question that relates to the prime minister's
responsibilities or government policy.
     The practice arises out of the twofold nature of the prime min-
ister's responsibilities. On the one hand the prime minister has
overall responsibility for the whole range of government affairs; on
the other hand, there are only a few specific responsibilities, such as
national security or top appointments, about which he or she can be
directly questioned. Sticking to those limited topics, members would be
hard pressed to fill the question periods; hence, they resort to this
indirect method.
     This form of question has obvious advantages for members. Since it
hides the real question, an element of surprise is given not only to
the first but to all other supplementaries that day. Moreover, although
a member has to submit his question two weeks ahead of time, he need
not compose his supplementary until the day on which it is to be asked.
But advantages accrue to the prime minister as well. Valuable seconds
are wasted as the prime minister gives a formula answer to the formula
question. Furthermore, because the topic of supplementary questions can
range so widely, it is difficult to submit the prime minister to a
searching examination by asking a number of supplementaries on the same
topic. (Only the leader of the opposition is pemmitted two or three
questions in succession after his first.)
     The prime minister prepares for Question Time by seeking briefings
from all departments on possible supplementaries.

After Question Time
Short items of business may be raised following questions. On Fridays,
when there is no Question Time, private notice questions may be asked
at 11 am, when ongoing business is interrupted.

Private Notice Questions. A problem may sometimes need to be raised at
once with the department concerned, and a member can request through a
private notice to a minister that he be allowed to address him on the
floor. To receive the time, the member must apply to the speaker before
noon on the day on which an answer is wanted.

The question must be urgent and it must be of public importance.
Examples have been the wreck of an oil tanker, violent episodes in
Northem Ireland, or strikes affecting essential national services. On
average, only four or five private notice questions a month have been
asked and answered in recent sessions.

The speaker
presides over
debate. All
speeches are
addressed to
the speaker. and
he or she calls
on members to
speak. If the
speaker rises to
give a ruling. the
House must be
silent. and while
he or she is
standing no
other member
may stand.

Business Questions. On Thursdays, in response to a private notice
question asked by the leader of the opposition the leader of the House
informs the Commons of the next week's business.

Ministerial Statements. These are made at this time on behalf of the
government on domestic or foreign policy.

Introduction of New Members. If there are any new members, they take
the oath of allegiance, sign the roll of members, and are presented by
the clerk to the speaker.

Proposals to Move for the Adjournment of the House. A member wishing to
discuss "a specific and important matter that should have urgent
consideration" may move for the adjournment of the House. The terms of
such a motion must be given to the speaker in writing and, if the
speaker accepts that the subject proposed for discussion is urgent
enough, the member asks the House for leave for the motion to be put
forward. Speakers have not, in general, allowed more than a few such
requests each session.
     Once leave has been given, the matter is debated for three hours,
nommally at the commencement of public business on the following day,
but it may be taken up at 7 pm that same evening if the speaker directs
that the urgency of the matter requires it.

     Ballot for Notices of Motions. All backbenchers may compete in
this ballot, and the three successful ones gain the right to move
motions for debate on the day set aside for the purpose.

Start of Public Business
The House's public business begins with ( 1 ) the presentation of
public bills for first reading, which is a formality that cannot be
debated or opposed; (2) govemment motions relating to business; and (3)
on Tuesdays and Wednesdays only, a motion for leave to bnng in a bill,
referred to as a " 10-minute rule" bill. The member sponsoring it is
allowed time for a short explanation, and another member may briefly
oppose it. The House then decides whether leave should be granted for
the bill to be introduced and given a first reading.

Orders of the Day and Notice of Motions
Motions and bills to be considered on a particular day are listed on
the Order Paper. The speaker calls on the member in whose name the
first motion stands or, in the case of a bill, on the member in charge
of the bill.
     The speaker presides over debate. All speeches are addressed to
the speaker, and he or she calls on members to speak. If the speaker
rises to give a ruling, the House must be silent, and while he or she
is standing no other member may stand. The speaker guards against abuse
of procedure or any infringement of minority rights; he or she also has
certain powers to check irrelevance and repetition in debate, and to
save time in other respects. In cases of serious and continuous
disorder, the speaker has power to adjourn the House or suspend the
sitting. In case of willful disobedience to his or her instructions,
the speaker can name the offending member, which will result in his
suspension for a time, from the House.

System of Debate. The subject of every debate originates in the form of
a motion (a proposal made by a member in order to elicit a decision
from the House), such as "That the bill be now read a second time."
When a motion has been moved and seconded, the speaker proposes the
question (in the same terms as the motion, such as "The question is
that the bill be now read a second time") as the subject of debate, and
debate begins.
     Members speak from wherever they are sitting and not from a
rostrum, although frontbench members usually stand at one of the
dispatch boxes on the table of the House. They do not read their
speeches but may consult notes. They refer to other members not by name
but by their constituencies, a practice emphasizing that the remarks
are directed not at the member but at the people whom the member
represents. Generally, no member may speak twice on the same motion,
unless to clarify some part of a speech that has been misunderstood, or
"by leave of the House."
     Only one member may address the House at the same time, and if the
member who is speaking refuses to acknowledge another member who wishes
to interrupt, the other member must resume his seat. A member may,
however, raise a point of order, drawing the attention of the chair to
a breach of the rules.
     The time allowed for debate is set by standing order, but it may
be ended earlier if a member moves for closure (a motion to end debate
and allow a vote, with the words "That the question be now put"); the
closure motion must be approved by the speaker and then put to the
House. If a vote is taken, at least 100 members must vote for closure
in order for it to be effective.
     At the end of each debate, whether terminated by standing order or
by closure, the chair puts the question to the House, adding "As many
as are of that opinion say 'aye,' the contrary 'no'." He then "collects
the voices" and says "I think the ayes [or the noes] have it." If this
view is challenged by members, the order is given to "clear the lobby,"
and the members' lobby is cleared of strangers. Division bells
signifying a vote ring in all parts of Westminster and other buildings
used by members.

Voting
The procedure for voting is called a division, which is the sep aration
into two lobbies of the members who wish to vote for or against a
question. A division takes about 10 minutes.
     Two minutes after the speaker has first put the question, he or
she repeats it, and if the opinion is still challenged, names four
tellers (two from each side), who will count members as they come out
of each lobby.
     Eight minutes after the question has been put, the order is given
to lock the doors, and all entrances to the division lobbies are locked
so that only those members already in the lobbies may vote. The name of
each member voting is recorded by a clerk. When all members wishing to
vote have done so, the tellers come to the table and inform the clerk
of the numbers, and the paper with the numbers is handed to the senior
teller for the winning side--a simple majority is required to agree to
a question. The tellers line up in front of the mace, bow, advance one
step, bow again, and the senior teller for the winning side reads out
the numbers. The paper is handed to a clerk standing by the opposition
dispatch box, who takes it to the speaker, who repeats the figures,
adding, "So the ayes [or noes] have it."
     Although members need not be present on the floor during debate,
attendance is expected with varying degrees of urgency for divisions.
The members are apprised of upcoming business and votes by the party
whips through a weekly letter, also called the "Whip." The importance a
party attaches to each debate or vote is indicated by its being
underlined one, two, or three times:

ù items underlined once are considered purely routine and attendance is
optional;
ù items underlined twice are more important and attendance is required
unless a "pair" (a teaming up with a member of an opposing party who
also intends to be absent) has been arranged;
ù items underlined three times are highly important and pairing is not
normally allowed. Failure to attend after receiving a "three-line whip"
is usually seen as a rebellion against the party's policy. The action
can draw considerable news media attention, and renders a member liable
to disciplinary action by his party.

Daily Adjournment Debate
The business for the day must be completed by 10 pm (2:30 pm on
Fridays) unless it is "exempted business" or unless the House agrees to
a government motion (to be taken at 10 pm without debate) to suspend
the standing order that regulates the hours of sitting. A 30-minute
adjournment debate ends the day, and so ideally the House would rise,
or end its meeting, at 10:30 pm.
     In practice, the House can be expected to sit past the 10:30
cutoff on about eight of 10 sitting days, not counting Fridays. There
is even provision for the House to conhnue one day's business beyond
the time scheduled for the next day's meeting.

Adjournment
A member can use the motion for adjournment to open a discussion of a
constituency case or a matter of public concern. The member wishing to
use this 30-minute period must notify the speaker in writing. A vote is
held once a week, and four members win the right to speak the following
week. The speaker chooses the subject of discussion on one day a week.
Normally only the member raising the matter and the minister re-
sponsible for replying speak during the debate.
     At the end of the adjournment debate the speaker declares the
House adjourned, and the sergeant at arms removes the mace.
How a Bill Becomes a Law

FOR A LAW TO BE enacted it must be presented and go through all the
necessary stages in both houses, and the Queen must signify her
approval (which is mostly a formality), all within a single session.
The bill then becomes an act and comes into force on the day on which
it receives royal assent, unless some other day is stated in the act.
Most bills involve measures relating to public policy and are known as
public bills. They tend to be general in character and affect everyone
(though they may apply to only one country of the United Kingdom). This
chapter is primarily devoted to public bills introduced by the
government in the House of Commons. At the end are descriptions of
private members' bills, private bills, and hybrid bills.

Preparing Legislation
Public bills introduced by the government are drafted on behalf of
ministers and have the support of the Cabinet. They are prepared by
barristers and solicitors, employed as civil servants, known as
parliamentary draftsmen or parliamentary counsel.
     The drafting of a bill is usually preceded by considerable con-
sultation with professional bodies, voluntary organizations, and other
agencies interested in the subject. Proposals for legislative changes
are sometimes set out by the government in "white papers," which may be
debated in Parliament before a bill is introduced. From time to time
documents called "green papers" lay out for public discussion
government proposals that are still at a formative stage.
     Before introduction in the House, bills are printed by Her
Majesty's Stationery Office and consist of the following parts:

(1) a short title, the name by which the bill is known;
(2) a long title, which summarizes the purposes of the bill;
(3) a preamble (rare in a public bill), which may contain a number of
arguments about the desirability of legislating on this subject;
(4) the clauses of the bill, containing the main provisions;
(5) the schedules, which contain detailed matters dependent on the
bill's provisions, such as lists of laws to be repealed by the hill.

A bill may be accompanied by a memorandum, framed in non-technical
language, explaining its contents and objectives.

Introduction. Public bills can be introduced in either House, but as a
rule bills likely to raise political controversy go through the Commons
first, and those of an intricate and technical nature start in the
Lords. A bill with a mainly financial purpose is almost always
introduced in the Commons.

First Reading. The vanous stages through which a bill has to pass in
the Commons, of which this is the first, are intended to provide
opportunities not only for consideration but for reconsideration. The
stages follow at intervals of between one day and several weeks,
depending on the nature of the bill, but in exceptional circumstances
all the stages may be taken on the same day.
     Although bills are no longer read aloud, the stages are still
called readings. This is a reminder of the days when printed copies
were not generally available, and the contents of a bill were read out
by a clerk.
     The first reading is a formality. The bill may be presented and
read for the first time as a result of the House agreeing to a mo tion
to introduce it, or it may simply be introduced, read for the first
time, and ordered to be read a second time. Once presented, it is
printed and proceeds to a second reading.

Second Reading. This stage offers the occasion for a wide debate on the
general principles of a bill; detailed discussion, including criticisms
that could be met by amendment, is reserved for the committee or report
stage. The opposition might decide to vote against the bill on its
second reading, or move an amendment to the motion that the bill be
read a second time.
     The House saves itself time on non-controversial bills by re-
ferring them to a second-reading committee, which considers the
principle of the bill in the House's stead. The bill is returned to the
House and a motion to give it a second reading is considered without
debate. If the motion is agreed to, the bill is considered to have had
its second reading.

Committee Stage. When a bill has passed its second reading it is
usually referred to a standing committee for a detailed examination.
Exceptions can include bills of constitutional importance and parts of
finance bills, which may be referred to the Committee of the Whole
House. On occasion, a bill may be referred to a select committee or a
special standing committee, both of which have the power to call
witnesses.
     In committee a measure is studied in detail, clause by clause. The
members (standing committees can consist of anywhere from 16 to 50
members) have more freedom in committee to speak, intervene, and
cross-examine than they do on the floor. Amendments are allowed as long
as they conform to the principles of the bill.

Report Stage. Here the full House considers the bill as amended, but
only the amendments and not the clauses of the bill are discussed. The
House may also make further amendments.

Third Reading. The bill is reviewed in its final form at third reading;
substantive amendments cannot be made. The bill is then sent to the
House of Lords.

Consideration by the Lords
House of Lords procedure is broadly similar to that in the Commons,
whether the bill has been brought there after passage in the Commons or
introduced there originally.
     The first reading is moved at once, and the bill proceeds through
the same stages as in the Commons. There are no second reading
committees or standing committees, and bills normally go through the
committee stage in Committee of the Whole House.

Agreement. If the House of Lords amends a bill brought from the
Commons, or vice versa, the bill must be returned to the house from
which it originated for consideration. If the originating house rejects
the amendments, it sets up a committee to list the reasons for the
disagreement. The amendments in dispute may then be dropped or insisted
upon, or alternative amendments proposed, and the process of formal
messages continues back and forth between the two houses until
agreement is reached.
     If they fail to agree, the bill is dropped. But the Commons has
the authority to present a bill originating in the Commons for royal
assent after one year and in a new session even if the House of Lords
still objects.
     The assent of the House of Lords is not essential, subject to
certain conditions, in the case of "money bills" authorizing taxation
or national expenditure. Bills dealing only with taxation or
expenditure become law within one month of being sent to the Lords,
whether or not the Lords has agreed.

Royal Assent
Once it has passed through the parliamentary stages the bill is sent to
the sovereign for approval. The sovereign signifies assent by letters
patent, an action which is declared to both houses by their speakers.
The bill then becomes part of the law of the land and is known as an
act of Parliament.

Delegated Legislation. The regulation of the details of an act of
Parliament may often be delegated to the ministers and other
authorities responsible for carrying it out. The rules, orders, and
regulations devised for executing the law are called statutory in-
struments. About 2,000 are instituted each year, and they have the same
legal authority as an act of Parliament.

Other Types of Bills

Private Member's Bills. A private member's bill is a public bill
introduced by a backbencher. At the beginning of each session, members
ballot for precedence in introducing a bill on one of the Fridays in
the session set aside for unofficial bills; the first 20 are
successful. Private member's bills may also be presented after Question
Time or under the "10-minute rule," which allows time for brief
speeches by the bill's advocate and an opponent. This process rarely
represents a serious attempt at legislation; it is used mostly as a
means to make a point.

Private Bills. A private bill is not the same as a private member's
bill; it applies only to part of the community. The great majority of
private bills are local in character. They are introduced through a
petition presented to Parliament by the person or organization who
desires the bill, and if accepted proceed through the same stages as a
public bill. Proceedings in committee resemble those in a court of law
in that promoters must prove need and objections from opposing sides
are heard. Unlike public bills, private bills may be carried over into
a new session.

If the House of Lords amends a bill brought from the Commons, or vice
versa, the bill must be returned to the house from which it originated
for consideration. If the originating house rejects the amendments, it
sets up a committee to list the reasons for the disagreement.
Committees

BOTH HOUSES OF Parliament have an organized and evolving committee
system. In the Commons, the system comprises Committees of the Whole
House, select committees, standing committees on public bills, Joint
committees of both the Commons and Lords, and private bill committees.
Parliament's committees have the option of allowing television coverage
of their sessions.

Committees of the Whole House
The Commons may resolve itself into a committee, known as a Committee
of the Whole House, to consider bills in detail, clause by clause. When
in committee, the House is presided over by the chairman of ways and
means, rather than the speaker, and members may speak more than once on
each question.

Select Committees
Select committees help Parliament with the control of the government by
examining aspects of public policy and administration, and undertake
more specific responsibilities in connection with Parliament's internal
operations. They examine subjects by taking written and oral evidence
and, after private deliberation, present a report to the House.
Committees have been established to oversee the main government
departments (Agriculture, Defense, Education, Science and the Arts,
Employment, Energy, Environment, Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs,
Industry and Trade, Social Services, Transport, and the Treasury and
Civil Service).

There are select committees on Scottish Affairs and Welsh Affairs and a
Liaison Committee to consider matters relating to the work of select
committees.

Other regular committees include the Public Accounts Committee, which
examines all government appropriations accounts; the Committee of
Privileges, which meets when a matter of parliamentary privilege is
referred to it; The House of Commons Services Committee, which advises
the speaker on accommodations and services; the Select Committee on the
Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration, which oversees the inde-
pendent "ombudsman" (the parliamentary commissioner) in his
investigations of charges of government maladministration; and the
Select Committee on European Legislation, etc., which examines
proposals of the European Community.

Membership on select committees is apportioned by each party's strength
in the House. Total membership is generally limited to 11 on
departmental select committees and to 15 on all others. The Selection
Committee is responsible for putting to the House a motion to nominate
those who are to serve on select committees; the motion is usually
agreed to without debate.

Select committees have the power to summon witnesses to give evidence
or produce documents. In most cases hearings are open to the public
while evidence is being given, but they are always closed during the
deliberative stage.

Standing Committees
While select committees are appointed usually for the duration of a
Parliament, with their membership changing relatively infrequently,
standing committees are set up afresh with new members for each subject
that is sent to them. The committees include those appointed to examine
public bills at the committee stage and, in certain cases, at the
second reading and report stages; a Second Reading Committee; two
Scottish standing committees; the Scottish Grand Committee; the Welsh
Grand Committee; and the Northern Ireland standing committee.
Ordinary standing committees have no distinct names, being referred to
simply as Standing Committee A, B, C, and so on. Each committee has
between 16 and 50 members, apportioned by party strength in the House.

Special Standing Committees
Rarely used, Special Standing Committees are a combination of select
and standing committees in that a limited number of evidence-taking
sessions can be held before the normal standing committee procedure is
adopted. The type of bill referred to this committee is
non-controversial in party terms, but may involve complex or novel
questions of policy.

Joint Committees
Joint committees are composed of equal numbers of members of both
houses and consider a particular subject or a particular bill, or all
bills of a particular description.

Private Bill Committees
If a private bill has a petition lodged against it, the committee
called to consider it must consist of members who have no personal or
local interest in the bill. For an unopposed bill, the committee
consists of the chairman of ways and means, a deputy chairman, and
three other members from a panel set up at the beginning of the session
by the Selection Committee.

The Commons Television System

TELEVISION DID NOT come easily to the House of Commons: At least 11
debates were held on the question since 1969. In February 1988, over
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's objections, the House agreed in
principle to an experiment, and the next month set up a committee to
look into its implementation. The committee's report was completed in
May 1989 and approved by the House inJune, with the experiment tG begin
November 1989. The Commons permanently ap proved TV coverage inJuly
1990.

Administrative Arrangements
Fearful of the editorial abuses that might be rendered by a broadcast
operation completely under outside control, members of the House of
Commons, as did their legislative counterparts in the United States and
Canada, opted for a TV system which it controls. The costs, however,
are borne by media organizations that use the signal.
     Television coverage is provided by the House of Commons
Broadcasting Unit Ltd., a joint subsidiary of the British Broadcasting
Corporation and Independent Television. The Commons' control of the
unit's coverage practices, which are spelled out in the report of the
Select Committee on Televising of Proceedings of the House, is
maintained through its power to appoint six of the unit's 12 directors
and to nominate the chairman. The unit retains an independent operator
to produce the signal, and the House of Commons controls the copyright.

Technical Arrangements
Eight remote-controlled cameras cover the proceedings. Three cameras on
each side, located beneath the galleries, provide a range of shots of
the benches. Two are positioned at the south end to provide a shot of
the speaker and the chamber as a whole.
     Lighting is provided by eight electric chandeliers, designed to
match the architectural character of the chamber.
The audio system was in place: The Commons had allowed sound
broadcasting of its proceedings for about 10 years.

Rules of Coverage
The general approach for coverage is that the television director
should seek, in the words of the committee report, "to give a full,
balanced, fair, and accurate account of proceedings, with the aim of
informing viewers about the work of the House." The director is advised
to be mindful of the dignity of the House and its function as a working
body "rather than a place of entertainment." Among the guidelines and
restrictions:

ù press and public galleries should not be shown;
ù a wide-angle shot of the chamber may be used during votes;
ù close-up shots of members' papers are prohibited;
ù the standard format for a member who has the floor is a
head-and-shoulders shot, not a close up;
ù wide-angle shots of the chamber are permitted from time to time if,
for example, the director needs to locate on another camera a member
who has just been called, or if an establishing shot would help to give
the viewer perspective;
ù the director should switch to a shot of the speaker or other occupant
of the chair whenever he or she rises;
ù the camera should normally remain on the person speaking until he has
finished--cutaway shots to show reactions are not normally allowed,
except to show a member who has been referred to by the member
speaking;
ù split-screens and panning shots are prohibited.



The House of Commons, as did its legislative counterparts in the United
States and Canada, opted for a TV system which it controls. The costs.
however, are borne by media organizations that use the signal.

The committee placed particular emphasis on dealing with disorder. The
approach, which instructs the director to cut away to a wide shot of
the chamber (which does not show the offending incident) or to the
occupant of the chair, reflects the committee's conviction that
"deliberate misconduct designed to secure televised publicity ought not
to achieve its aim."

Use of the Signal
The House of Commons prohibits the use of any part of its televised
proceedings in light entertainment or political satire programs, party
political broadcasts, or advertisements.
     The BBC network and the independent ITV make varied use of the
signal, offering morning programs on the previous day's sitting,
regular mid-aftemoon coverage, occasional live coverage of important
events, and weekend review programs. Some members were dissuaded from
supporting television early on, because edited television coverage
would be the only medium through which the public could see Commons'
business. Many are hopeful that a C-SPAN-like network offering
gavel-to-gavel coverage via satellite will be available soon.

Glossary of Terms

Act. Legislation approved by both the House of Commons and (with
certain exceptions) the House of Lords, and given the royal assent,
thus becoming a law.

Adjournment Debate. A half-hour period at the end of official business
in which a member may raise a constituency case or matter of public
concern and receive a reply from the appropriate government minister.
The speaker holds a ballot for the four members who will have time that
week; he or she chooses the fifth day's topic.

Backbenchers. Members who do not hold posts in the government and sit
on the back benches in the chamber.

Bar. A rod marking the boundary of the House. Each of the two houses
has a bar beyond which members of the other House may not pass when the
first House is sitting. It symbolizes the autonomy of each body.

Bill. A draft law. Most are public bills introduced by the government.
Opportunity is available for the introduction of bills by backbench
members (private member's bills), by individuals and corporate bodies
outside Parliament (private bills), and public bills that affect the
entire community but also have an impact on a single individual or
corporation (hybrid bills).

Black Rod. The royal messenger. Among his duties is the summoning of
the members of the Commons to the House of Lords for the state opening
of Parliament.

Cabinet. The most senior ministers in the government. Comprising
approximately 20 members in all, the Cabinet is drawn from both houses,
although the great majority of its members come from the Commons. A
minister in charge of a department is usually of Cabinet rank.

Closure. A special motion to cut off debate and put a question to a
vote. The speaker must approve the motion and 100 members agree with
it.

Commencement Orders. Statutory instruments (drawn up by the legal
department of the ministry concerned) that bring into force the whole
or part of an act.

Committee of the Whole House. The Commons (or the Lords) resolved into
a committee to consider bills as a select or standing committee
normally would, i.e., in detail, clause by clause, after a bill's
second reading. Any member can propose that the House resolve itself
into committee. Proceedings are conducted in much the same way as in
the House, except that a chairman, rather than the speaker, presides.

Conservative and Unionist Members' Committee (1922 Committee). An
organization of Conservative Party backbenchers. It meets once a week,
and, although it is not allowed to formulate policy, it serves as a
sounding board of Conservative opinion in the House. It was formed in
1922 when the Conservatives decided to end their coalition with the
Lloyd George Liberals.

Constituency. The geographic area a member represents. (In the American
sense, "constituency" refers not to the area but to the people
represented.) There are 651 constituencies in the United Kingdom, and
hence 651 seats in the House of Commons: 524 for England, 72 for
Scotland, 38 for Wales, and 17 for Northern Ireland.

Delegated Legislation. The process by which ministers and government
departments lay out the specific rules, orders, and regulations to
carry out an act of Parliament. The process is accomplished primarily
through statutory instruments, which have the same weight as an act of
Parliament.

Devolution. The delegation of power from a central government to a
local authority Several measures have been considered for passing to
elected assemblies in Scotland and Wales the authority to handle the
domestic affairs of those countries.

Dissolution. The termination of a Parliament by royal proclamation,
which occurs either at the end of the normal five-year term or earlier
if requested by the government. The same proclamation that dissolves
the old Parliament calls for the election of a new one.

Division. The procedure for voting. Members leave their seats in the
chamber or come to the chamber if absent and enter one of the two
division lobbies. Members voting "aye" go out of the chamber into the
lobby on the speaker's right; those voting "no" pass into the lobby on
his or her left.

First Reading. The stage in the legislative process in which a bill is
introduced in Parliament. The bill is not actually read (use of the
word "reading" dates from the days before printing) and may not even be
drafted yet-Parliament does not need to know the actual contents at
first reading because there is no debate at this stage.

Frontbenchers. Members who are leaders of the government or opposition
parties and sit on the front benches.

Green Paper. A consultative document setting out of public discussion
legislative proposals by the government that are still in the formative
stage. Interested organizations can send their comments back to the
appropriate ministry.

Government. Traditionally, with regard to Britain, the ministers chosen
by the sovereign to carry out the executive and administrahve functions
of the government as a whole. In modern practice, so that the executive
and the legislature can work toward the same ends, these ministers are
drawn from the leadership of the majority party in the House of Commons
(and the role of the sovereign is limited to acting on the advice of
these ministers). This arrangement helps to assure passage of the gov-
ernment's program in that body. About 100 members of both houses, but
primarily the Commons, form the government. The leader of the party is
usually named prime minister; about 20 of the most senior members form
the Cabinet.

Government Bill. Draft legislation introduced by the administration,
usually one of the government departments. It is composed by
parliamentary draftsmen, or parliamentary counsel (who are civil
servants) on the instructions of and in close liaison with the
government department concerned, and it embodies the policies of the
administration. Because the government has the support of a majority in
the House of Commons, and because party discipline is strong, a
government bill is usually passed in substantially the same form in
which it was introduced.

Great Britain. The countries of England, Scotland, and Wales. Great
Britain and Northern Ireland form the United Kingdom.

Guillotine. A timetable motion for completing consideration of a bill.
It cuts off any further discussion.

Hansard. The official report of the day's proceedings, published the
following morning. The name comes from the family of printers and
publishers who published parliamentary papers in the l9th century.

Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Printer for bills, records of debates,
minutes of committees, and other publications of Parliament and the
government. Members of the public may buy copies of Commons bills, etc.
from HMSO.

Hybrid Bill. A type of public bill that may affect the private rights
of a person or a body. For example, a bill to acquire property for a
nationalized industry might affect some privately owned land.

Joint Committee. A group drawn from both houses to consider a
particular subject or a particular bill, or all bills of a particular
description. Such committees are often appointed each ses sion to
scrutinize statutory instruments and consolidation bills.

Leader of the House of Commons. The member of the government primarily
responsible for organizing the business of the House. One of the
leader's functions is to announce the following week's program, in
answer to a question put to him by the leader of the opposition,
usually at 3:30 pm on Thursdays.

Lord Chancellor. The head of the judiciary (the ll.S. equivalent of the
chief justice of the Supreme Court) and speaker of the House of Lords.
He is recommended by the prime minister

Lords of Appeal in Ordinary. Members of the House of Lords expressly
appointed to hear appeals to that House, which is the final court of
appeal for civil cases in Britain and for criminal cases in England,
Wales, and Northern Ireland.

Lords Spiritual. The bishops of the Church of England who are members
of the House of Lords. They include the archbishops of Canterbury and
York; the bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester; and the 21 next
most senior diocesan bishops.

Lords Temporal. The peers and peeresses of the House of Lords. They are
(1) the hereditary peers, who inherited their titles and can pass them
on to their children. Most of the titles are fairly recent: Of the 800
hereditary peerages, half were created in the 20th century; (2) life
peers, who are given their titles only for their lifetimes; and (3) law
lords, or lords of appeal, who are life peers assisting the House in
its judicial duties. All temporal peerages are conferred by the
sovereign on the advice of the prime minister.

Mace. A staff symbolizing the royal authority delegated to the House of
Commons. The sergeant at arms waits upon the speaker with the mace, and
it is laid upon the table of the House while the Commons is in session.
When the Commons resolves itself into the Committee of the Whole House,
the mace is placed beneath the table.

Minister. A member of the government. Ministers are drawn al most
entirely from party ranks in the House of Commons and the House of
Lords; about 100 members serve in the government. The most senior
members form the Cabinet, and department heads are usually of Cabinet
rank. They are assisted by junior ministers, responsible for different
aspects of a department's work

Money Bills. Legislation dealing with taxation or expenditure. They
include the finance bill, which authorizes taxation, and the
consolidated fund or appropriation bill, which authorizes national
expenditure. Bills dealing only with taxation or expenditure must
become law within one month of being sent to the Lords, whether or not
the House of Lords has agreed, unless the Commons directs otherwise.
The Lords cannot make amendments to a money bill.

Motion. A formal proposal on which a vote must be taken in the
affirmative in order to move it forward. A point for debate is
introduced in the form of a motion (for example, "That this House is of
the opinion--") and then proposed by the chair as a question ("The
question is that this House is of the opinion--").

MP. Member of Parliament.

One-Line Whip. A notation in each party's weekly circular (the "whip")
indicating the relative importance of attendance. A debate or vote
underlined once is considered purely routine and attendance is
optional.

Opposition. The party with the next-largest number of seats after the
majority party (also referred to as "her majesty's opposition" or "the
official opposition"). The opposition has its own leader, who receives
a salary in addition to his parliamentary salary, and its own "shadow
cabinet," whose members act as spokesmen on the subjects for which
government ministers have responsibility.

Parliamentary Labor Party. An organization of all Labor Party members
of both houses of Parliament. The members meet each week to discuss
policy and tactics. The party leader and "shadow cabinet" members maY
attend if they wish.

Prime Minister. The leading position in the Cabinet. Since the late
l9th century the prime minister has been the leader of the party with a
majority in the Commons.

Private Bill. Proposed legislation dealing with a part of the
community, rather than the community as a whole. Promoters are usually
local authorities, statutory bodies, or private companies. It is
introduced not by a member but through a petition presented to
Parliament by the person or organization who desires the bill.

Private Bill Committee. A group called to consider a bill introduced by
an individual or group outside Parliament. If a petition has been
lodged against the bill, the members can have no personal or local
interest in the legislation.

Private Member's Bill. A public bill introduced by a backbencher.
Because the government controls the agenda in the Commons, it is
difficult for a private member to persuade the House to agree to a
motion for non-government bills; hence, time is set aside for the
purpose. Although a few do become law each session, private bills
rarely proceed further than second reading.

Prorogation. The terminahon of a session of Parliament through the
exercise of the royal prerogative. It is usually affected by an
announcement on behalf of the crown made in the House of Lords and
lasting until a fixed date.

Public Bill. Draft legislation relating to public policy and affecting
everyone (though it may apply to only one country of the United
Kingdom). Most bills introduced in Parliament are public bills.

Question Time. The period on Monday through Thursday, beginning at
approximately 2:30 pm and ending at 3:30 pm, when government ministers
respond to questions put (in advance) by backbenchers. The prime
minister takes questions on Tuesdays and Thursday from 3:15 to 3:30 pm.

Quorum. The number of members required for the transaction of business.
No quorum is required in the House, but if fewer than 40 members take
part in a vote, the business under consideration is held over until the
next sitting.

Report Stage. The step in the legislative process in which the House
considers a bill as amended by committee and makes any further
amendments. Only the amendments and not the clauses of the bill are
discussed in the report stage.

Royal Assent. The sovereign's approval of a parliamentary bill. After
this step the bill becomes part of the law of the land and is known as
an act of Parliament. The royal assent has not been refused since 1707.

Royal Prerogative. The collection of powers in the hands of the crown.
Constitutionally the legal existence of Parliament depends upon the
exercise of the royal prerogative. However, the powers of the crown in
connection with Parliament are subject to limitation and change by
legislative process and are always exercised through and on the advice
of Parliament ministers.

Schedules. A portion of a bill containing detailed matters dependent on
the provisions of the bill, such as lists of laws to be repealed by the
bill.

Second Reading. The step in the legislative process in which members
have their first main occasion for a wide debate of the principles of a
bill. Detailed discussion is left for the committee or report stages.

Select Committee. A group of no more than 15 members ( 11 for
departmental committees), reflecting party strength in the House, set
up (1) to help Parliament with the control of the government by
examining aspects of public policy or administration, or (2) to
undertake more specific responsibilities in connection with the
internal operations and procedures of Parliament. (The committee that
drew up the rules and recommendations for television coverage in the
House of Commons was a select committee.) There are 14 select
committees that examine the activities of the main government and
several others set up to handle Parliament's internal affairs. Select
committees gather evidence and summon witnesses, and last for the
duration of a Parliament Bills are seldom referred to a select
committee.

Session. A division in the life of Parliament, usually of one year's
length. A session begins with the queen's state opening of Parliament
in November and ends by prorogation in the summer or fall.

Sitting. A daily meeting of Parliament. When Parliament is in session,
a sitting usually begins at 2:30 pm Monday through
Thursday and must, by standing order, end at 10:00 pm (followed by a
30-minute adjournment debate). However, most days the House agrees to a
government motion, made at 10:00 pm, to suspend the standing order and
continue. Sittings on Friday begin at 9:30 am and close at 3:00 pm.

Speaker. The chief officer of the House of Commons, who presides over
debate and enforces the rules of order. The office has been held
continuously since 1377, and its powers have been exercised with
complete impartiality since at least the middle of the l9th century.

Special Standing Committee. A rarely used hybrid of the select and
standing committee, instituted as an experiment in 1980 and made
permanent in 1986. The committee investigates the issues involved in a
bill before commencing with the normal standing committee procedure.
The bills referred to this committee are usually complex or novel, but
non-controversial in party terms.

Standing Committee. A group of about 18 members, reflecting party
strength in the House, set up to deal with bills as and when necessary.
There have been up to 10 sitting at one time, and they are designated
merely by letter (Standing Committee A, B, etc.). Most routine bills go
to a standing committee. They usually meet Tuesday and Thursday
mornings.

State Opening of Parliament. The ceremonial start of a new session, or
of a new Parliament after a general election. The queen rides in state
to the House of Lords, where members of both chambers assemble, and
reads a speech drafted by the Cabinet that sets out the government's
plan for the forthcoming year

Third Reading. The step in the legislative process in which a bill is
reviewed in final form. Substantive amendments cannot be made. Once
past this stage, the bill proceeds to the other House.

Three-Line Whip. A notation in each party's weekly circular (the
"Whip") indicating the relative importance of attendance. A debate or
vote underlined three times is important enough that all members must
attend or be liable to disciplinary action.

Two-Line Whip. A notation in each party's weekly circular (the "Whip")
indicating the relative importance of attendance. A debate or vote
underlined twice is important enough that all members must attend
unless a "pair" (a member of an opposing party who also intends to be
absent from the vote) has been arranged.

United Kingdom. Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales) and
Northern Ireland. The English Parliament became the Parliament of Great
Britain in 1707 with the Treaty for the Union of Scotland and England;
the Act for the Union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1800 established
the United Kin~dom Parliament.

"Usual Channels." The government and opposition chief whips, who hold
frequent consultations on the schedule of business in the House.
Whenever the question of finding time for debating an issue or other
parliamentary arrangements are discussed, a member will make reference
to consulting the 'usual channels."

Westminster (Palace of Westminster). The home of both houses of
Parliament and parliamentary of fices. The palace was originally a
royal residence, but was abandoned by Henry VIII after a fire in 1512.

Whip. Members chosen by their parties to keep the membership informed
of parliamentary business, maintain the party's voting strength by
ensunng that members attend important debates, and convey to the party
leadership the opinion of backbench members. The whips consist of the
chief whip and, in the two main parties, the deputy chief whip and a
number of junior whips. The term ' whip" also refers to the weekly
circular distributed to all members noting important debates and votes.

White Paper. A proposal for legislative changes set out by the
government before a bill is introduced. The white paper's proposals may
be debated in Parliament.

Woolsack. The seat for the lord chancellor in the House of Lords when
he presides over debate. lt is a large square cushion in front of the
throne, stuffed with wool from several countries in the British
commonw~alth

Big Ben is not a clock. It is a 13.5 ton bell in the clock tower of
England's House of Parliament. Cast in 1858, the bell's installation
was directed by the rotund Sir Benjamin Hall, commissioner of works.
The bell was originally to be called St. Stephen's, but the British
newspapers renamed it Big Ben.
"The Book of Answers" from
the New York Public Library

The U.S.-U.K. Index

Number of members in the British House of Commons: 651
In the U.S. House of Representatives: 435

Years in a House of Commons member's term*: 5
In a U.5. House member's: 2

Average cost** of campaign for House of Commons
candidates: $6,500 (plus 5-7› per elector~
For U.S. House candidates: $381,310

Maximum length of campaign for House of Commons
candidate in days: 17
For U.S. House candidates: None

Salary of House of Commons members: $46,000
Of U.S. House members: $ 133,600

Number of staff members in office of
House of Commons member: 1.5
For a U.S. House member: 17

Office allowance for House of Commons member: $60,000
For a U.S. House member: $173,500

Percentage of Britons registered to vote: 100
Of U.S. citizens: 68

Percentage of Britons who voted in last
national election: 76.3
Of registered U.S. voters: 61

Average number of days in a
House of Commons session: 166
In U.S. House of Representatives: 277

Average number of citizens represented by members of
Commons: 67,700
By members of the U.S. House: 572,466

Number of seats available to the public in the
House of Commons chamber: 300
ln the U.S. House chamber: 630

* Maximum length of term. Elections can be called at any time during a
Parliament by the majority party.

** At $1.50 per British pound.

Use of the Harper's Index format courtesy
of Harper's
Magazine