Self-Employment as a Vocational Rehabilitation Closure: An 
    Examination of State Policies
Nancy L. Arnold, Ph.D.Tom Seekins, Ph.D.Research and Training 
Center on Rural Rehabilitation ServicesRural Institute on 
DisabilitiesThe University of MontanaMissoula, Montana
Reprinted with permission from the Journal of Disability Policy 
Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1994.
Self-employment may be a viable vocational rehabilitation (VR) 
option, particularly in rural areas (Seekins, 1992).  Overall, 
the U. S. Bureau of the Census (1983) reports that people who 
report a work disability are nearly twice as likely to be 
self-employed (14.7%) as people without a disability (8%).  
Arnold, Seekins, and Ravesloot (1995) report that, within the 
public vocational rehabilitation service system, self-employment 
is used more often as a case closure by VR counselors in rural 
states than in urban ones.  Overall, however, self-employment is 
used  as a vocational rehabilitation closure infrequently.  In 
1988, for example, only 2.6% of all closures were to 
self-employment (Rehabilitation Services Administration [RSA], 
1988).
Ravesloot and Seekins (in press) found that the use of 
self-employment as a case closure was significantly influenced by 
counselor attitudes.  In turn, their attitudes were shaped by 
office atmosphere and state policy regarding self-employment.
Among the attitudes held by counselors that may affect their use 
of self-employment is that high rates of business failure make 
self-employment too risky (Ravesloot & Seekins, in press).  Yet, 
business researchers (Aley, 1993; Duncan, 1994; Mangelsdorf, 
1993) estimate that, in reality, such businesses fail at a rate 
of 18-20% over the first 8 years.  These new estimates correct 
for voluntary closures due to retirement, changes in ownership, 
incorporation, or sales which were previously counted as business 
failures.
The policies of state offices of vcational rehabilitation that 
may influence counselor attitudes are governed by the 1973 
Rehabilitation Act and its amendments (Rehabilitation Act 
Amendments of 1992).  To comply with the act, a state must 
address a prescribed list of elements, although each state has 
discretion in the way it operates to achieve compliance.  This 
discretion often results in policies governing identical issues 
that differ from state to state. 
The general goal of the public VR system is to provide services 
leading to employment for people who have a physical or mental 
disability that constitutes or results in a substantial handicap 
to employment (Office of Special Education & Rehabilitation 
Services [OSERS], 1993).  Services are provided if there is a 
reasonable expectation that they will assist an individual with 
becoming employed in the "competitive labor market; the practice 
of a profession; self-employment; homemaking; farm or family 
work...sheltered employment; home-based employment; supported 
employment; or other gainful work" (OSERS, 1993, emphasis added).  
While federal law expresses no preference for any type of 
employment situation over another,  the majority of closures 
(81.5% in 1988) are to situations where the consumer works for 
someone else (RSA, 1988).  Self-employment (where a person owns, 
operates, and manages a business; no supervisor oversees the 
person; and payments to Social Security are made directly by the 
person) is not used as a VR closure as often as might be 
expected,  based on the overall rate of self-employment reported 
by those with a work disability. 
This study, one of a series of studies examining self-employment 
as a vocational option for people with disabilities, was designed 
to assess the status of state VR policies governing the use of 
self-employment as a VR option.  This policy analysis appears to 
be the first effort to compile and compare self-employment 
policies across states.
Method
During 1990, departments of vocational rehabilitation in all 50 
states and the District of Columbia were contacted by letter and 
requested to submit any policies or procedures on 
self-employment.  A follow-up telephone request was made to 
nonrespondents.  Forty-four states and the District of Columbia 
either submitted policies or procedures on self-employment or 
responded that they had no specific written policies.
   Self-employment policies underwent four content reviews.  The 
method used for analyzing the policies, which allowed results to 
emerge from the data and not from preconceived ideas, is 
discussed in Bailey (1987, p. 303).  In this type of analysis, 
categories for document study are not derived from theory but are 
constructed by examining the "documents...and ascertaining what 
common elements they contain."  Categories then "emerge from the 
documents to be analyzed" resulting in achieving categories that 
are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Procedurally, this analysis included six separate steps, some of 
which were repeated during the analysis.  In the first step the 
researcher became familiar with the contents of the documents by 
reading each policy one or more times.  During thisreview, themes 
and concepts which were common across state policies were noted 
(e.g., issues to be addressed, required documentation, 
responsibility for developing the plan, the review and approval 
process).    
Following this initial review, the researcher discussed these 
themes and concepts with experts in the field.  The purpose of 
these discussions was to substantiate the impressions and 
observations noted during the first review.
Third, the researcher used the substantiated list of themes and 
concepts to catalog each state policy.  This involved writing out 
the exact content of each state's policy relevant to each of the 
themes or dimensions.  
Fourth, various patterns, including similarities and differences 
between each policy and qualitative dimensions, such as 
thoroughness and restrictiveness, were also noted and discussed 
with experts.  During this step, a number of possible organizing 
patterns for analyzing the data emerged (e.g., responsibility for 
accomplishing tasks, components of a comprehensive 
self-employment policy, types and amounts of expenditures funded 
by each state, autonomy of the counselor or consumer in the 
process).  The first organizing pattern selected for analyzing 
the policies included the person(s) or group(s) responsible for 
accomplishing tasks during the self-employment process.
During the fifth step, states were classified according to the 
person, persons, or groups responsible for certain tasks in the 
self-employment process.  This resulted in 16 different policy 
models. 
The utility of these models for organizing states' policies was 
evaluated during the sixth step.  Using the criteria of 
parsimony, this 16-model framework was judged as too complex to 
be useful and the researcher returned to step 4 to select another 
organizing pattern for analyzing the policies.  The pattern 
selected was to analyze the policies according to the components 
of a self-employment policy (Table 1).  However, prior to  
initiating this review, literature on entrepreneurship was 
reviewed and experts in the field of business were consulted to 
determine that the consistency of the components identified in 
this pattern were those considered as important and necessary.  
All components but the ones specific to VR agency review and VR 
agency follow-up were verified by both literature (e.g., Jenkins 
& PSI Research, 1992; Larson, 1990) and experts.  Agency review 
and follow-up were judged as necessary to help ensure the 
business's success and to protect the state's investment.  States 
were contacted for clarification of ambiguous statements.
Results
Forty-five VR departments submitted policies.  When the 45 
responses were analyzed in 1991 and 1992, 11 (25%) of the 
responding VR departments had no specific written policies, 
procedures, or guidelines for self-employment.  
The policies and procedures of the 34 remaining states that 
participated in this study differed in a number of ways.  For 
example, some policies contained explicit instructions for 
accomplishing tasks.  Some required that forms or questionnaires 
be completed.  Others contained very general directions or ideas, 
andsome combined explicitness and generality.  
Ten states required that the counselor eliminate all other viable 
rehabilitation options or salaried employment before considering 
self-employment.  Six states required that self-employment be 
reserved for people with severe disabilities; two of these states 
were not using an order of selection at the time.  While three 
state policies contained positive statements about 
self-employment (e.g., it allows the consumer to be productive, 
the counselor to be creative, or it fosters independence), almost 
one-quarter of the states included more negative statements.  For 
example, 11 state policies included statements that pointed out 
potential hazards of self-employment, such as possible failure of 
a self-employment venture, the hard work and long hours involved, 
that little income might be earned, or the need to exercise 
caution in considering a self-employment plan.
The policies and the responsibility for accomplishing similar 
tasks leading to a self-employment closure varied from 
state-to-state.  None of the states appeared to have the 
counselor, consumer, or others involved in the process 
responsible for the same tasks or have them assume the same 
amount of responsibility.  For example, in some states the 
counselor assumed full responsibility for the self-employment 
process.  In other states, the counselor worked with a 
self-employment specialist; made the consumer and counselor 
responsible for the self-employment process; included the 
consumer or counselor and an outside business consultant in the 
process; or split the responsibilities between the consumer, 
counselor and a business enterprise program.
Table 1 presents eight components of a self-employment policy 
that emerged from the reviews of state policies. The Appendix 
discusses these components and proposes a framework for a 
comprehensive policy governing self-employment as a VR option. 
Table 1 also indicates which state policies currently address 
these components. Only one state, Michigan, included all eight 
components in its policy.  
Discussion
This study presents a review of VR state policies governing the 
use of self-employment as a vocational rehabilitation closure.  
The wide variety of policies observed revealed the autonomy 
states have in governing their practices.  Analysis of these 
polices suggested eight components of a comprehensive policy for 
using self-employment as a VR closure that are consistent with 
procedures recommended by business development experts (see 
Appendix).  Half of responding states and two-thirds of those 
reporting a policy on self-employment included five or more of 
these components but only one included all eight.
While three policies contain positive statements about 
self-employment, 11 of the submitted policies contained negative 
statements.  These included warnings about high rates of business 
failures (three states quoted failure rates) and potential harm 
to consumers of a business failure.  The policies that warn about 
the hazards of self-employment may do so in an attempt to protect 
both the consumer and the state.  For example, a warning may 
serve to make both the counselor and consumer aware of potential 
risks and to deter them from entering into this type of 
vocational rehabilitation plan lightly.  Unfortunately, these 
warnings may serve to dissuade the use of self-employment even in 
those cases where it may be appropriate.   
Policies that contain warnings about the high rate of business 
failures contain statistics based on the "conventional wisdom" of 
the past.  These statistics held that half of all new ventures 
faild within the first year, that two-thirds of them were out of 
business by the second year, or that four-fifths had failed by 
the fifth year.  New estimates for failures are much lower.  
These statistics indicate that small businesses fail at a rate of 
only 18 to 20% over the first 8 years (Aley, 1993; Duncan, 1994; 
Mangelsdorf, 1993).  
When these data are compared with the success rate of VR closures 
to competitive employment reported by the General Accounting 
Office (GAO),  self-employment may be viewed with less concern.

"Within the group RSA classified as rehabilitated (60 days from 
the end of services), after two years the proportion with any 
earnings from wages returned to near or below pre-program 
levels." (GAO, 1993, p. 64)  

Therefore, it appears that when looking at all competitive 
closures  (including self-employment), a number of people are 
likely to experience some sort of harmful effect as a result of 
not staying employed and that the harmful effects of employment 
failure are not limited to self-employment situations.  
Two states' policies stated that self-employment placement costs 
were high.  Indeed,  the Rehabilitation Services Administration 
(1988) reported that the average cost of a self-employment 
placement was $3,122, a placement where the consumer worked for 
someone else averaged $1,939, a sheltered workshop placement 
averaged $2,707, a homemaker placement averaged $1,868, and an 
unpaid family worker placement averaged $2,503.  Although the 
average cost of a self-employment placement is higher than for 
other placements (ranging from $415 to $1,254), the cost/benefits 
over time are unclear because it is not known how long such 
placements last compared to others, the comparative return on 
investment, the levels of income produced by each placement type, 
or consumers' comparative satisfaction.
 Nine state policies appear to require that a counselor be 
proficient in areas for which he or she may have little or no 
training or expertise.  A counselor may be required by state 
policy to analyze a business plan, to develop the plan him- or 
herself or in conjunction with the consumer, or to recommend 
funding of the business venture.  A counselor educated and 
working in human services may not know how or have the aptitude 
to develop or interpret a business plan, market analysis, income 
and expense reports, profit and loss statements, or a business's 
books.  State VR departments could help counselors become more 
familiar with the basics of self-employment by providing 
training.  Possible sources of training include: state small 
business development centers (funded by the Small Business 
Administration), regional rehabilitation continuing education 
programs (RRCEP), state departments of commerce, and colleges and 
universities.  The purpose of this training is not to remove 
counselors from their role of counseling consumers, but to give 
them a basic understanding of what a good business plan looks 
like.
Although self-employment is not an often used vocational 
rehabilitation option, it may be an important one for people with 
disabilities; esecially those living in rural areas.  
Self-employment may afford some individuals greater control over 
their work  setting, work schedule and pace, greater expression 
of talent, and long-term career growth.  For those in rural 
areas, self-employment may offer an option where employers and 
jobs are scarce, wages are low, and the jobs that are available 
often require physical effort.  Clearly, already it is used more 
often in these latter situations.
The design of this study did not permit an analysis of the 
implementation of state policies to determine the extent to which 
the written policies are actually followed.  As such, it is not 
possible to assess directly the effect of these policies on 
counselor behavior and placement success.  The variety of 
existing policies may also present an obstacle to such an 
evaluation by making it difficult to specify the independent 
variable(s).  Future research on the effectiveness of various 
policies and practices for managing the use of self-employment 
should consider developing definitions of practice such as that 
outlined in the Appendix.
Future research might also attempt to evaluate the cost/benefit 
of self-employment.  From the cost side, research should address 
both counselor time and state investment in such placements.  
From the benefits side, such research might evaluate how long 
self-employment lasts, what income is produced, consumer 
satisfaction with these arrangements, and other consequences 
(e.g., career development, potential social isolation of 
home-based businesses, etc.).
   It is also interesting to note that people with a work 
disability report being self-employed at twice the rate of the 
general population (U. S. Census Bureau, 1983).  This rate cannot 
be accounted for by VR services.  Future research might attempt 
to determine who these people are, what they do, how successful 
they are, and how they became self-employed.
Finally, examination of self-employment as an issue of importance 
to VR also raises the question of VR's role in fostering 
community economic development.  Clearly, when a consumer is 
placed in a competitive job, VR is relying on the economic base 
within the community.  When a counselor supports a consumer's 
effort to develop a new business in a community, VR contributes 
to the economic development of the community.  Future research 
might examine the possible linkages between VR services and local 
economic development efforts.  This may be particularly relevant 
in rural areas where small businesses often are the core of the 
economic base.
This research was an important step in exploring state VR 
self-employment policies.  It uncovered numerous differences in 
the regulations governing self-employment as well as policy 
statements that appear to negatively influence counselors on its 
use.  The policy analysis resulted in eight components 
recommended for a thorough policy on the use of self-employment.  
Six of these components are also recommended by experts in and 
literature on small business development and entrepreneurship.  
The analysis also resulted in recommendations for future research 
in the area of self-employment and vocational rehabilitation.
Appendix
The following outlines components for a comprehensive policy on 
self-employment.  Several of the components contain ideas found 
in existing state policies.  Often the state policies did not 
address thoroughly the component, so they were supplemented with 
recommendations found in the following two books: Starting and 
Operating a Business in Montana: A Step-by-Step Guide (Jenkins & 
PSI Research, 1992) and The Montana Entrepreneur's Guide (Larson, 
1990).  Although these books contain the word "Montana" in the 
titles, the "Starting and Operating" book is available for every 
state and the District of Columbia and many of the ideas in the 
Montana Entrepreneur's Guide are useful for any small business.
Framework for Policy and Procedures Governing the Use of 
Self-Employment Closures 
Self-employment is a legitimate vocational rehabilitation 
closure.  Contrary to conventional wisdom, small businesses often 
succeed and many people with work disabilities report being 
self-employed.
Self-employment may be appropriate for a consumer when: the 
individual has owned or operated a business in the past; the 
individual requires a work setting or schedule under his or her 
control; the competitive labor market is tight and placement 
unlikely.  It is important for the consumer to have a good 
marketable idea.
If a consumer asks about self-employment, a counselor should 
acknowledge his or her interest in this option.  Both benefits 
and drawbacks should be reviewed.  (Note: a number of the 
following benefits and disadvantages are taken from Jenkins & PSI 
Research, 1992.)
Benefits include:
1. Independence--the ability to control the work setting and 
schedule.
2. Employment where the possibility of employment for another is 
slim.
3. Being the boss.
4. Contact with customers, suppliers, and others.
5. Making a living at something the individual enjoys doing.
6. A sense of achievement and personal satisfaction if the 
business is a success.
7. Job security depends on the individual, not on others.
8. Having the ability to make business decisions.
Drawbacks include:
1. In reality, the customer is the boss, not the individual.
2. The hours may be long and hard; often withoutmuch spare time.
3. Income may not be steady.
4. All the responsibility lies with the individual.
5. The business may fail.
A wide range of federal, state, local, and private agencies 
provide support for people interested in starting or expanding 
businesses.  Some agencies of potential interest to VR counselors 
and consumers include the Small Business Administration (SBA), 
local and state chambers of commerce, Community Development Block 
Grant economic development programs, state board of investments, 
state department of agriculture, Farmers Home Administration, 
local and state economic development organizations, small 
business development centers (funded by the SBA), or development 
finance organizations.  
If a consumer maintains interest in self-employment, the 
following steps are recommended.
1. Assess Consumer's Business Potential
Assessment may  include evaluations of a consumer's skills and 
aptitudes, as well as evaluations of the consumer as he or she 
works through the self-employment process.  Assessments may be 
done by a counselor, a VR committee, small business expert, or an 
external evaluator. A standardized format should be followed.  
Reported assessments consist of a vocational evaluation, a 
psychological assessment, a credit check, and a medical 
evaluation.  Besides formal evaluations, assessment can also 
include observation and assessment of the consumer's planning 
skills, ability to formulate a marketing and business plan, 
degree of enthusiasm, initiative, and how he or she 
follows-through on his or her own self-imposed deadlines or those 
imposed by VR.1  If  counselors are to perform the evaluation, 
training should be provided to insure that the counselors know 
what the state expects of the consumer.  The most important 
element is to make sure that those who are responsible for moving 
the plan along or for approving it have an understanding of 
self-employment and of interpreting consumer assessments in light 
of probable success. 
2. Develop a Business Idea, Explore its Feasibility,Conduct a 
Market Analysis
This task can be accomplished by one or more people working 
separately or in conjunction with one another.  The consumer 
should bear the major responsibility, however.  His or her 
business proposal should be analyzed by the counselor, an outside 
consultant, a VR committee, or a business development expert.  
The business idea may be a service or product new to the 
geographic location or a differentiation in an existing service 
or product (i.e., a better service, compatibility with other 
products, an emphasis on safety, more convenient hours, etc.).
The consumer should research the market to determine the need for 
the business, who the customers would be, and what they are 
looking for.  Accomplishing this task should provide the consumer 
and VR with information necessary to determine if there is a need 
for the business, how much of a need there is, and the likelihood 
of success of the business.  Research can be qualitative 
(interviews, case studies, focus groups) or quantitative (conduct 
a survey or an experiment or an analysis of secondary data).  
Qualitative methods usually are used to produce ideas while 
quantitative methods usually are used to verify the qualitative 
data.  
Counselors may also use this step to assess the consumer's 
initiative and commitment by expecting him or her to perform many 
of these steps with minimum guidance.  Such initiative is a key 
characteristic of successful entrepreneurs.  If a counselor does 
not feel the consumer is performing these steps as expected, the 
counselor should discuss this with the consumer.
3. Consumer Obtains Education or Training
The consumer is expected to be knowledgeable about the product or 
service offered and about various aspects of running a business 
such as management, bookkeeping, or marketing.  Under this 
component, the consumer would acquire knowledge or skills through 
whatever means are appropriate such as attending school, taking 
correspondence classes, participating in a training program, or 
working at the same job in another business.  
4. Obtain Technical Assistance
The consumer obtains technical assistance in any aspect of the 
business from one or more experts either within the state VR 
system, from an outside consultant, from the same type of 
business, from a business in an adjacent industry, from 
retailers, sales representatives, industry associations, or 
chambers of commerce.  VR counselors should have or be able to 
refer the consumer to information about banks and loans, tax 
information, licensing, or type of training needed.  The consumer 
should talk to people in the same business, in an adjacent 
industry, in rtail, in sales, in industry associations, or with 
chambers of commerce who can provide the VR consumer with insight 
about insurance, inventory, advertising, site location, 
customers, product distribution, licensing, accountants, 
attorneys, or tax information.  Books are another valuable source 
of technical assistance.  Reading books about (a) 
entrepreneurship, such as Starting and Operating a Business in 
Montana (Jenkins and PSI, 1992; this series publishes a guide for 
every state and Washington, D.C) or The Montana Entrepreneur's 
Guide (Larson, 1990; although specific to Montana the information 
can be generalized to other states); (b) specific topics such as 
marketing or management; (c) the service(s) provided; or (d) the 
product(s) manufactured.  
At this point, a counselor may wish to refer the consumer to the 
variety of community supports available to entrepreneurs.  These 
may include local business incubators, economic development 
programs, or a local college or university.  Such groups can 
provide extensive support (e.g., guidance in developing a 
business plan), as well as funding and access to funding.
5. Develop a Business Plan
The business plan will be used when applying for funds from VR or 
from sources other than VR.  It is a plan that will allow both 
the consumer and sources of funding (e.g., VR, banks, etc.) to 
evaluate the business and its chances for success.  Minimally, 
the business plan should include a descriptive summary; a market 
analysis; a marketing plan; a financial plan (breakeven analysis, 
cashflow analysis, income statement, and balance sheet); an 
analysis of initial inventory and supplies; a discussion of 
methods for recordkeeping, and address zoning, licenses, and 
insurance; a discussion of possible risks and problems; and an 
overall implementation schedule.   
A review of the plan's adequacy can be conducted by the 
counselor, a VR committee or expert, or an outside consultant.  
It is anticipated that a VR committee or expert and an outside 
consultant would have the skills necessary for analyzing the 
plan.  However, when a  counselor or counselor supervisor is 
expected to evaluate and approve the plan, it is important to 
recognize that he or she might not possess the skills or 
knowledge necessary to adequately assess the self-employment 
plan.  In this case, it is recommended he or she be provided 
training or that an outside or VR department consultant be 
available for consultation.
6. Explore and Apply for Resources Available From Other Sources
The consumer is expected to contribute as much as possible 
towards the business from his or her own resources.  If 
additional funds are needed and before expending VR monies, the 
consumer should apply for them from other sources such as venture 
or investment capitalists, banks, the Small Business 
Administration (either for a loan or a loan guarantee), Community 
Development Block Grants, trade credit, finance companies, Social 
Security, wealthy individual investors, family, or friends.  
Local business incubators and support groups can provide 
assistance in this step.  Some consumers also may be eligible for 
funds from other sources such as programs for certain ppulations 
(e.g., programs that assist women or minorities start or expand a 
business), programs for redeveloping a certain geographic 
location (e.g., an old downtown area), or from business 
incubators operating in a certain location.
7. Agency Reviews Self-Employment Plan
The entire self-employment plan should be reviewed by one or more 
individuals knowledgeable about the proposed business, the 
geographic and market area, and about small business operation.  
The person or persons responsible for this review may vary from 
agency to agency, but might involve the counselor, the 
counselor's supervisor, a committee, or an outside consultant.  
Concerns expressed should be addressed and depending on how they 
affect the plan, it may need to be reviewed again prior to 
approving and funding the venture.  Currently, in many states the 
counselor's supervisor is the final authority approving the 
venture.  However, unless this person is thoroughly familiar with 
small business practices and the business climate in the proposed 
market area, it is recommended that the case be reviewed by 
others who are better informed.
8. Follow-Up
Follow-up should include a review of the business' profit & loss 
and income & expense statements, books, and tax returns by the 
counselor if qualified to review and interpret them or by one or 
more people who can interpret and pass judgement on the business' 
progress.  These records should be reviewed on a periodic basis, 
at least quarterly until the case is closed.  Follow-up also may 
include asking customers, either through an interview or a 
questionnaire, about their satisfaction with the business.
End Note
 In the 1992 Amendments to the Rehabilitation Act, the term 
"employability" was replaced with "employent outcome." Policy is 
still being developed to comply with this change, and it is 
unclear at this time if or how this definition will change. For 
this article te definition used was the one in place at the time 
of the policy analysis.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant from the National Institute on 
Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) (#G0087C0228).  
This study is part of a larger effort supported by NIDRR to 
develop effective strategies for providing rehabilitation 
services in rural areas.  The opinions expressed are those of the 
authors and do not reflect the position of the agency.  The 
authors wish to acknowledge the work of their colleagues Craig 
Ravesloot, Peg Plimpton and Cheryl Vandenberg on this project.
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