GRAMMATICAL TERMS Absolute phrase. A phrase that is grammatically independent but closely related in meaning to the rest of the sentence. A rather formal construction not often found in informal writing. A *nominative absolute* consists of a noun or a pronoun followed by a participle. {The game having ended}, the crowd went home. Abstract noun. See Noun. Active voice. See Voice. Adjective. A part of speech used to modify (i.e., describe orlimit.] a noun or noun substitute. Descriptive adjectives: {blue} sky, {good} will, {American} citizen, {waving} flag,{elaborate} preparations Limiting adjectives: {my} book, {its} nest, {their} homes [possessive.] {this} idea, {that} one, {these} men, {those} nets [demonstrative.] {Whose} cap? {Which one?} {What} dress? [interrogative.] {some} money, {more} effort, {several} others, {many}freshmen [indefinite.] {one} pear, {three} plums, {first} robin, {third} base, {twentieth} anniversary [numerical.] Adjective clause. A subordinate clause used as an adjective. The man {who is honest} will succeed. [The clause, equivalent to the adjective {honest}, modifies the noun {man}. Adverb. A part of speech used to modify a word [or word group] other than a noun or pronoun. An adverb may qualify or limit a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or even a whole clause. An adverb often indicates time [are {now} going], place [stayed {there }], manner [acting {quickly}], or degree [{very} eager]. Stand {here}. [{Here} modifies the verb {stand}.] Stand beside the {very} old clock. [{Very} modifies the adjective {old}.] Stand {very quietly}. [{Very} modifies the adverb {quietly}, which modifies the verb {stand}.] {Certainly} you may be seated. [{Certainly} modifies the main clause.] Adverb clause. A subordinate clause used as an adverb. I shall leave the house {after she comes}. [The adverb clause {after she comes} modifies the verb {shall leave} and indicates time.] Adverb clauses may also indicate place, manner, cause, purpose, condition, concession, comparison, or result. Agreement. The correspondence in form of one word with another [such as a verb with its subject, or a pronoun with its antecedent] to indicate person and number. Antecedent. The name given to a word of group of words to whicha pronoun refers. This is the {man who} came to the house. [{Man} is the antecedent of the relative pronoun {who}.] When {John} and {Mary} came, {they} told us the facts in the case. [{John} and {Mary} are the antecedents of the personal pronoun {they}.] Appositive. A noun or noun substitute set beside another noun or noun substitute and identifying or explaining it. Dr. Smith, our {dentist}, is visiting England, his native country. [{Dentist} is in apposition with {Dr.Smith}, and {country} is in apposition with {England}.] Article. The definite article {the} and the indefinite articles {a} and {an} are usually classified as adjectives. They indicate that a noun or noun substitute is to follow. Auxiliary. A word that is used to form various tenses of verbs. {Have}, {may}, {can}, {be}, {shall}, {will}, {must}, {should} and {do} are common auxiliaries. I {shall} go. He {was} sent away. He {has been} promoted. Case. The inflection form of a noun [{man's}] or pronoun [{he}, {his}, {him}] to show such relations as subject [subjective or nominative case--{he}], possession [possessive case--{man's}, {his}], or object [objective case--{him}]. Clause. A group of words that contains a verb and its subject and is used as part of a sentence. A clause may be main [independent, principal] or subordinate [dependent]. (1) A main [independent, principal] clause can stand by itself as a simple sentence. {The moon rose} and {the stars came out}. [Two main clauses, either of which can stand by itself as a simple sentence.] (2) A subordinate [dependant] clause cannot stand alone. It is used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. {That he will run for office} is doubtful. [Noun clause: a subordinate clause used as subject of the sentence.] Collective noun. See Noun. Colloquial. Appropriate for conversation and informal writing rather than for formal writing. Common noun. See Noun. Comparison. The change in the form of an adjective or adverb to indicate degrees of superiority in quality, quantity, or manner. There are three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative. EXAMPLES: Positive Comparative Superlative good better best high higher highest quickly more quickly most quickly Complement. A word or words used to complete the sense of the verb, the subject, or the object. The complement may be an object, a predicate noun, or a predicate adjective. OBJECTS John gave the {boy} a {book}. [{Book} is the direct object,{boy} is the indirect object.] PREDICATE NOUNS Samuel was a good {child}. [The predicate noun {child},referring to the subject {Samuel}, is also called the *predicate complement*, the *subjective complement*, or the *predicate nominative*.] He called the man a {hero}. [{Man} is the direct object. The noun {hero}, referring to {man}, is called the *objective complement* or the *predicate complement*.] PREDICATE ADJECTIVES The boy is {obedient}. [The predicate adjective {obedient}, referring to the subject {boy}, is also called the *subjective complement* or the *predicate complement*.] Jack colored the egg {blue}. [{Egg} is the direct object. The predicate adjective {blue}, referring to {egg}, is also called the *objective complement* or the *predicate objective*.] Complete predicate. See Predicate. Complete subject. See Subject. Complex sentence. See Sentence. Compound sentence. See Sentence. Compound-complex sentence. See Sentence. Concrete noun. See Noun. Conjugation. A grouping of verb forms to indicate tense, voice, mood, number, and person. See also Inflection. Conjunction. A part of speech (often called a function word) used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. There are two kinds, co-ordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. (1) Co-ordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank: {and}, {but}, {or}, {nor}, {for} and sometimes {so} and {yet}. (2) Subordinating conjunctions connect subordinate clauses with main clauses: {if}, {although}, {since}, {in order that}, {as}, {because}, {unless}, {after}, {before}, {until}, {when}, {whenever}, {where}, {while}, {wherever}, etc. Conjunctive adverb. An adverb which can also be used to connector relate main clauses: {however}, {therefore}, {nevertheless}, {hence}, {then}, {besides}, {moreover}, {thus}, {otherwise}, {consequently}, {accordingly}, etc. Construction. See Syntax. Co-ordinate, co-ordinating. Of equal rank. For example, two nouns, two infinitives, or two main clauses. Copula (Copulative verb). See Linking verb. Declension. See Inflection. Demonstrative adjective. See Adjective. Demonstrative pronoun. See Pronoun. Dependent clause. See Clause. Descriptive adjective. See Adjective. Diagramming. An arrangement of words on lines to show relationships within the sentence. Various forms are used. Any form is serviceable if it help the user understand the sentence. A diagram is only a means to an end, not an ending itself. Direct address (Nominative of address, vocative). A noun or pronoun used parenthetically to direct a speech to a definite person. I hope, {Mary}, that you will go. {Mary}, close the door. Direct object. See Object. Direct quotations. The exact oral or written words of others. Direct quotation: John asked, "Why don't you join us, Martha?" Indirect quotation: John asked Martha why she didn't join the group. Ellipsis (Elliptical expression). An expression in which words are omitted but which is nonetheless clear because the omitted words can be readily supplied. Mary is prettier than Helen [is pretty]. Whenever [it is] possible, you should take exercise. Use the *Ellipsis mark* [three spaced periods] to indicate an omission of one or more words within a quoted passage. If the omission ends with a period, use four spaced periods (one to mark the end of the sentence and three to show the omission). Expletive. {It} or {there} used merely as an introductory word or filler. {It} is true that he is not coming. {There} were few men present. Finite verb. A verb or verb form that makes a complete assertion and may thus serve as a predicate. "The sun {rose}." "The sun {is rising}." Infinitives, participles, and gerunds are *Verbals*, not finite verbs. Form change. See Inflection. Gerund phrase. See Phrase. Idiom. An expression in good use that is peculiar to a language.(Idioms sometime violate established rules of grammar, but are nevertheless sanctioned by usage.) I have known him for {many a year}. I am {not myself} today. Imperative. See Mood. Indefinite pronoun. See Pronoun. Independent clause (Main clause, principal clause). See Clause. Independent element. Any word or group of words that has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. DIRECT ADDRESS I hope, {William}, that you can go. INTERPOLATION The whole family, {we hope}, will come. ABSOLUTE EXPRESSION {Darkness having come}, he slipped away. INTERJECTION {Ah}, this is the sport I enjoy. Indicative. See Mood. Indirect object. See Object. Indirect quotation. See Direct quotation. Infinitive. See Verbals. Infinitive phrase. See Phrase. Inflection. A change in the form of a word to show a change in meaning or in grammatical relationship to some other word or group of words. The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called *declension*; the inflection of verbs, *conjugation*; that of adjectives and adverbs, *comparison*. Inflection of verbs (indicating tense, person, mood) look, looking, looks, looked drink, drinking, drinks, drank, drunk know, knowing, knows, knew, known be, being, am, is, are, was, were, been Inflection of nouns (indicating number, case) dog, dogs; dog's, dogs' child, children; child's children's Inflection of pronouns (indicating case, person, number) I, me, my, mine we, us, our, ours, who, whom, whose, someone, someone's {This} is old. {These} are old. {That} is older than {those}. Inflection of modifiers (indicating comparison, number) fast, faster, fastest, bad, worse, worst, attractive, more attractive, most attractive, {this} letter, {these} letters, {that} letter, {those}letters Intensive pronoun. See Pronoun. Interjection. A part of speech expressing emotion and having no grammatical relation with other words in the sentence. {Oh}, I can hardly believe it. {Whew!} That was a narrow escape. Interrogative pronoun. See Pronoun. Intransitive. See Verb. Irregular verb. See Strong verb. Limiting adjective. See Adjective. Linking verb. A verb used to express the relationship between the subject and the predicate noun or predicate adjective. The chief linking verbs are {be}, {become}, {seem}, {appear}, and verbs pertaining to the senses. He {is} brave. I {feel} bad. Fred {became} a lawyer. Main clause (Independent clause). See Clause. Modifier. Any word or group of words that describes or qualifies another word or group of words. See Modify. Modify. To describe or qualify the meaning of a word or group of words. {A very old man} hobbled {slowly along the road}. [{A} and {old} modify {man}; {very} modifies {old}; {slowly} and {along the road} modify {hobbled}; {the} modifies {road}.] See also Inflection. Mood (Mode). The form of the verb that is used to indicate the manner in which the action or state is conceived. English has indicative, imperative, and subjective moods. The *indicative mood* states a fact or asks a question. You {have} a good mind. {Have} you any ideas? Mother {is} here. {Is} Mother here? The *imperative mood* gives a command, makes a request, or gives directions. {Be} careful. {Watch} your step, please. {Take} the next street on the right, please. The *subjunctive mood* expresses a doubt, a condition contrary to fact, a wish or regret, a concession, asupposition. I wish that Mother {were} here. If I {had} my way, you would not go. Nominative. Equivalent to subjective. See Case. Nominative absolute. See Absolute phrase. Nominative of address. See Direct address. Nonrestrictive modifier. A nonessential modifier. A parenthetical phrase or clause which does not identify theperson or thing modified. Objective complement. See Complement. Participial phrase. See Phrase. Participle. See Verbals. Parts of speech. The eight classes into which most grammarians group words according to their form changes and/or their uses in the sentence: verb, noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. It is important to note that part of speech is determined by function. The same word is often used as several different parts of speech. Passive voice. See Voice. Person. Changes in the form of verbs and pronouns which indicate whether a person is speaking (first person), is spoken to (second person), or is spoken about (third person). FIRST PERSON {I} see the boy. SECOND PERSON Can {you} see the boy? THIRD PERSON {He} sees the boy. Personal pronoun. See Pronoun. Phrase. A group of related words which lacks subject and verb and is used as a single part of speech. Prepositional phrase: The man {with red hair} is my brother. [Adjective] My brother lives {in the city}. [Adverb] Participial phrase: The door {leading to the porch} is open [Adjective] Gerund phrase: {Reckless driving along the highways} is responsible for many wrecks. [Noun substitute] Infinitive phrase: {To err} is human. [Noun substitute] Verb phrases: He {has been employed} for a year. [Verb] See also Verb and Verbals. Predicate. The part of the sentence comprising what is said about the subject. The *complete predicate* consists of the verb (the *simple predicate*) along with its complements and modifiers. He {runs} through the house. [{Runs} is the simplepredicate; {runs through the house} is the complete predicate.] Predicate adjective, predicate complement, predicate nominative, predicate noun, predicate objective. See Complement. Preposition. A part of speech (often called a function word) that is used to show the relation of a noun or noun-equivalent to some other word in the sentence. The telephone is {in} the hall. [The preposition {in} shows the relationship of the noun {hall} to the verb {is}.] Across, after, at, before, between, by, for, from, in, of, on, over, to under, with, up, and near are commonly used prepositions. Prepositional phrase. See Phrase. Principal clause (Main clause, independent clause). See Clause. Principal parts. The forms of any verb from which the various tenses are derived: (1) present stem (infinitive), (2) past tense, and (3) past participle. EXAMPLES see saw seen take took taken love loved loved Progressive verb. A form of the verb (ending in -ing and following a part of the auxiliary {be}) used to express continuous action or state of being. Sally {was singing} a cowboy ballad. I {have been playing} tennis all afternoon. Pronoun. A part of speech used instead of a noun. Personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, etc. (See also Case.) Interrogative pronouns: who, which, what. Who is he? Relative pronouns: who, which, that. He who steals my purse steals trash. Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those. This is more useful than that. Indefinite pronouns: each, either, any, anyone, some, someone, no one, few, all, everyone, etc. Reciprocal pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, etc. I blamed myself. Intensive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, etc. I myself will go. See also Inflection. Proper adjective. An adjective formed from a proper noun, as {Spanish} from {Spain}. Proper noun. See Noun. Quotation. See Direct quotation. Reciprocal pronoun. See Pronoun. Reflexive pronoun. See Pronoun. Regular verb. See Weak verb. Relative pronoun. See Pronoun. Restrictive modifier. An essential modifier. A phrase or clause which identifies the word modified and which therefore cannot be omitted without changing the essential meaning of the sentence. Any person {who talks incessantly} is a bore. See also Nonrestrictive modifier. Sentence. A unit of expression that may stand alone. A grammatically complete sentence contains at least a verb (predicate) and its subject (one or the other sometime simplied), with or without modifiers. Sentences are classified structurally as (1) simple , (2) compound, (3)complex, or (4) compound-complex. (1) Simple sentence. A sentence containing but one mainclause and no subordinate clauses. Five basic patterns of the simple sentence: 1. SUBJECT-VERB {Birds are singing} happily. The {horses were led} to the water. 2. SUBJECT-VERB-DIRECT OBJECT {I} {forgot} my {assignment}. 3. SUBJECT-VERB-INDIRECT OBJECT-DIRECT OBJECT {She} {mailed} {me} a birthday {gift}. 4. SUBJECT-LINKING VERB-PREDICATE ADJECTIVE Recently {she} {appears} very {unhappy}. 5. SUBJECT-LINKING VERB-PREDICATE NOUN {She} {may be} a famous {actress} some day. Simple sentences may have compound subjects, verbs, objects, etc. Birds and bats swoop and fly. (2) Compound sentence. A sentence containing two or moremain clauses but no subordinate clauses. The moon rose and the stars twinkled. (3) Complex sentence. A sentence containing one main clauseand one or more subordinate clauses. Birds fly [main clause] when they are startled [subordinate clause]. (4) Compound-complex sentence. A sentence containing two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. {Engines roared} [main clause 1] overhead and a {bomb fell} [main clause 2] where {we had stood} [subordinate clause]. Simple predicate. See Predicate. Simple sentence. See Sentence. Simple subject. See Subject. Strong verb (Irregular verb). A verb that forms its principal parts in various ways other than by the addition of -ed, -d,or -t. See also Inflection. EXAMPLES Vowel changes: swim, swam, swum Addition of -en: beat, beat, beaten No change: set, set, set Subject. The person or thing (in a sentence or clause) about which an assertion is made. The subject and the words associated with it make up the *complete subject*. The {dog} at the front of the house barked at the car.[{Dog} is the *simple subject*; {the dog at the frontof the house} is the complete subject.] Subjunctive. See Case. Subjective complement. See Complement. Subjunctive. See Mood. Subordinate clause. A dependant clause. See Clause. Substantive. Any word or group of words used as a noun. Substantives may be nouns, pronouns, phrases (especially gerund or infinitive phrases, or noun clauses. Syntax (Construction). Sentence structure. The grammatical function of words, phrases, clauses. Tense. Change in the form of the verb to indicate time. See Inflection. Transitive. See Verb. Verb. A part of speech that is used to assert action or being and that changes form to indicate time, person, mood. See Inflection. Transitive verb. A verb either passive in form (see Voice) or with a direct object to complete its meaning. See Object. The boy {sold} his bicycle. Intransitive verb. A verb not having an object and notpassive in form. See Voice. I {was} in New York last Christmas. She {has been waiting} patiently for hours. Verb phrase. See Phrase. Verbals. Words derived from verbs but used as nouns or adjectives (or sometimes as adverbs). The three verbals are gerunds, participles, infinitives. The gerund is used only as a noun and always ends in -ing. It may be used as subject ("{Swimming} is fun"), as object of a verb ("I enjoy {swimming}"), as object of a preposition ("By {swimming} he reached shore"), or as an appositive ("My chief recreation is {swimming}"). The gerund, like a noun, may be modified by an adjective: "{Skillful} swimming saved his life." The gerund shows its verbal origin by its ability to take an object ("Swimming a choppy {stream} can be dangerous") or to be modified by an adverb ("By swimming {rapidly}, he escaped"). The participle is used only as an adjective. Since the present participle ends in -ing, it can be distinguished from the gerund only by its use in the sentence. {Swimming} is fun. [Gerund--a noun, subject of the verb {is}.] A {swimming} suit is needed. [Participle--an adjective modifying the noun {suit}.] Participles: the {rising} sun, a {concealed} weapon, a {lost} cause, a {broken} bone, a bone {broken} by a fall, a {worn} coat, a coat {worn} by a beggar. [Note the varying endings of the past participle---ed, -t, -en--and the internal shifts in {worn} (f {wear}).] The infinitive is used chiefly as a noun, less frequently as an adjective or an adverb. It is made up of {to} plus a verb, but after certain verbs, this {to} may be omitted: "He helped ({to) make} the kite." "He dared not ({to) go} away." USED AS A NOUN {To walk} was a pleasure. [Subject] He began {to open the box}. [Object of verb] Her wish was {to see him leave}. [Predicate noun] I will do anything except ({to) wash the dishes}. [Object of preposition] USED AS AN ADJECTIVE I have work {to do}. [{To do} modifies the noun {work}] USED AS AN ADVERB He enlisted {to become an aviator}. [The infinitive modifies the verb {enlisted}.] The infinitive shows its verbal origin by its ability to take a subject ("I asked {him} to go"), to take an object ("I wanted to pay {him}"), or to be modified by an adverb ("I asked him to drive {slowly}"). Note that the subject of the infinitive is in objective case. Vocative. See Direct address. Voice. Distinction in the form of a verb to indicate whether the subject acts (active voice) or is acted upon (passive voice). Weak verb (Regular verb). Any verb that forms its principal parts by adding -ed, -ed, or -t to the infinitive: love, loved, loved; sweep, swept, swept. SIT AND SET, LIE AND LAY These two sets of verbs are frequently confused because of similarity in spelling or meaning. Present stem Past Past Present (infinitive) tense participle participle LIE (to recline) lay lain lying LAY (to cause to lie) laid laid laying SIT (to be seated) sat sat sitting SET (to place or put) set set setting Wrong: He {lay} the book on the table. [Past tense of the transitive verb {lay} needed] Right: He {laid} the book on the table. Right: The book is {lying} (not {laying}) on the table. Wrong: He {set} in the chair. [Past tense of the intransitive verb {sit} needed] Right: He {sat} in the chair. Right: He {set} the bucket on the table. [Transitive] Right: The man is {sitting} (not {setting}) in the chair. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS Present stem Past tense Past participle begin began begun bite bit bitten blow blew blown break broke broken bring brought brought burst burst burst catch caught caught choose chose chosen come came come dive 1)dived dived 2)dove do did done drag dragged dragged draw drew drawn drink drank drunk eat ate eaten fall fell fallen fly flew flown freeze froze frozen get got 1)got 2)gotten give gave given go went gone grow grew grown hang (execute) hanged hanged hang (suspend) hung hung know knew known lead led led lose lost lost raise raised raised ride rode ridden rise rose risen run ran run shrink 1)shrank shrunk 2)shrunk sing 1)sang sung 2)sung sink 1)sank sunk 2)sunk speak spoke spoken spring 1)sprang sprung 2)sprung steal stole stolen swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken tear tore torn throw threw thrown wear wore worn weave wove woven write wrote writte