Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges August 1995 OTA- ITC- 621 1 Recommended Citation: U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges, OTA- ITC- 621 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, August 1995). 2 iii oreword elecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportuni-ties and Challenges examines the potential of telecommunications to improve the socioeconomic conditions of Native AmericansP American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native HawaiiansP living in rural, remote areas, and to help them maintain their cultures and exercise control over their lives and destinies. The report discusses the opportunities for Native Americans to use tele-communications (including computer networking, videoconferencing, multimedia, digital and wireless technologies, and the like) in the realms of culture, education, health care, economic development, and governance. It also explores the challenges and barriers to realizing these opportunities, notably the need to improve the technology infrastructure (and access to it), technical training, leadership, strategic partnerships, and telecommunica-tions planning on Indian reservations and in Alaska Native villages and Na-tive Hawaiian communities. Prepared at the request of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, this is the first federal government report on Native American telecommunica-tions. It provides a framework for technology planning and policy actions by Congress and relevant federal agencies, as well as by Native leaders and governments. Native Americans were involved throughout the study. OTA made site visits to six states and consulted with Native leaders and technolo-gy experts in about two dozen other states. Computer networking was used extensively for research and outreach, and OTA developed the Native American Resource Page for this study, a World Wide Web home page ac-cessible via OTA Online (http:// www. ota. gov/ nativea. html). OTA appreciates the assistance of the project advisory panelists, a ma-jority of whom are Native American, and federal agency workshop partici-pants, as well as the many Native government, federal and state govern-ment, library, educational, business, and other groups and individuals who participated in the study. OTA values their perspectives and comments; the report is, however, solely the responsibility of OTA. ROGER C. HERDMAN Director 3 v dvisory Panel David Iha, Chairperson Provost Kauai Community College Lihue, Kauai, HI Haunani Apoliona President Alu Like Honolulu, HI George Baldwin Professor California State University at Monterey Bay Seaside, CA Manley Begay Executive Director American Indian Economic Development Project John F. Kennedy School of Government Harvard University Cambridge, MA Ann Bishop Assistant Professor Graduate School of Library and Information Science University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign Champaign, IL Connie Buffalo President Electronic Pathways Vice President Mind Extension Institute Jones Interactive Inglewood, CO Steve Cisler Senior Scientist Advanced Technology Group Apple Computer, Inc. Cupertino, CA Nedra Darling Director Reel Indian Productions Santa Fe, NM Gary Garrison Telecommunications Project Manager American Indian Higher Education Consortium Lincoln, NE Willie Hensley Commissioner Economic Development Alaska Department of Commerce Juneau, AK Russell Huffman, Jr. Public Health Director Yukon- Kuskokwim Health Corp. Bethel, AK 4 vi Rio Lara Bellon Telecommunications Network Project Extension Indian Reservation Program Washington State University and Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Rochester, WA Joseph Orozco Producer California Indian Radio Project Indigenous Communications Association Hoopa, CA Randy Ross Telecommunications Consultant Rapid City, SD Joan Timeche Program Director Center for American Indian Economic Development Co- Executive Director National Executive Education Program for Native American Leadership Northern Arizona University Flagstaff, AZ Charles Trimble President Red Willow Institute Omaha, NE Dave Warren Vice President Media Resources Associates, Inc. Santa Fe, NM Madonna Peltier Yawakie Tribal Nations Market Manager US West Communications Minneapolis, MN Note: OTA appreciates the valuable assistance and thoughtful comments provided by the advisory panelists. The panel does not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full responsibility for the report and the accuracy o! f its contents. 5 vii roject Staff Peter Blair Assistant Director OTA Industry, Commerce, and International Security Division Andrew Wyckoff Program Director OTA Industry, Telecommunications, and Commerce Program James W. Curlin Program Director 1 PRINCIPAL STAFF FRED B. WOOD Project Director Stephanie Gajar Analyst Karla Breitbach Research Assistant Jean E. Smith Project Editor CONTRIBUTING STAFF David Butler Analyst Denise Dougherty Program Director Ray Williamson Senior Associate CONTRACTORS Karen Funk and Sandra Ferguson, Esq. Hobbs, Straus, Dean & Walker Washington, DC Pat Spears Consultant Aberdeen, SD ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF Liz Emanuel Office Administrator Karry Fornshill Secretary Diane Jackson Administrative Secretary Karolyn St. Clair PC Specialist PUBLISHING STAFF Mary Lou Higgs Manager Denise Felix Production Editor Bonnie Sparks Electronic Publishing Specialist Chris Onrubia Senior Graphic Designer ________________ 1 Through September 1994. 6 ix 1 Summary and Policy Implications 1 Opportunities and Challenges 2 Policy Implications 6 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures 17 Native American Cultural and Community Challenges 18 Renewing and Strengthening Native Languages 21 Protecting Sacred Sites and Objects 26 Recording, Developing, and Sharing Native Cultures 27 Broadening Public Awareness of Native Cultures 34 Developing a Native Cultural Empowerment Strategy 35 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building 39 Technologies and Infrastructure for Community- Building 40 Education and Research 44 Health Care 54 Economic Development and Environmental Protection 58 Governance 65 Telecommunications Access for Community- Building 68 4 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications Policy 73 Historical Context: American Indians and Alaska Natives 74 Historical Context: Native Hawaiians 77 Indian Law and Telecommunications 80 Federal Indian Policy Potentially Applicable to Telecommunications 83 FCC Policies on Minorities 87 ontents 7 x 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications 91 Need for a Policy Framework 92 Empowering Native American Telecommunications 95 Refocusing the Federal Role 104 APPENDICES A Computer Networking for Native Americans 123 B OTA on the Internet: The Native American Resource Page 127 C Native American Telecommunications Infrastructure: Survey Instrument 139 D Reviewers and Contributors 143 E Boxes, Figures, and Tables 153 INDEX 155 8 Summary and Policy Implications s the Internet, electronic mail, compact discs, and digital telephones sweep through much of the United States, Na-tive American activists are asking themselves whether and how the new technology can empower Native com-munities. Or will the new technology of telecommunications and computers serve only as a modern- day version of the telegraph and railroad that ran right through Indian lands with little benefit to the tribes? Will the technology serve to bring together or further disconnect Alaskan and Hawaiian Natives from their continental and island homelands? At the time of the American Revolution, what is now the United States was home to hundreds of indigenous peoples with a variety of forms of self- government, organized at the tribal, vil-lage, or island level. Today's Native AmericansP American In-dians, Alaska Natives, and Native HawaiiansP are the descen-dants of these indigenous peoples. 1 Over the last 200 years, indigenous peoples have struggled to maintain their cultures, sov-ereignty, and self- determination in the face of population pres-sures and ever- expanding national and state governments. The established framework of federal Indian law recognizes tribal sovereignty, a federal trust responsibility for those tribal lands and resources ceded to or taken by the United States, and a commitment to tribal self- determination over programs and ser-vices vital to tribal well- being. Federal law and policy apply this framework to the 550 federally recognized Indian tribesP in-1 Native Americans are defined in this report to include American Indians, Alaska Na-tives (Indian, Aleut, and Eskimo), and Native Hawaiians who are descendants of indige-nous peoples who lived in geographic areas now comprising the United States. |1 9 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Native Americans Population (total estimated 1990 population) a American Indians 1,875,000 Alaska Natives 86,000 (52% Eskimo, 12% Aleut, 36% Indian) Native Hawaiians 211,000 Grand total 2,172,000 Native Americans living in rural or semi- rural areas American Indians Reservations and trust lands 437,000 Tribal Jurisdictional Statistical Areas (Oklahoma) 201,000 Tribal Designated Statistical Areas 54,000 Other rural/ semirural areas (est.) 250,000 Alaska Natives Alaska Native Village Statistical Areas 47,000 Native Hawaiians Rural/ semi- rural areas (est. ) 70,000 Grand total rural/ semi- rural 1,059,000 a The U S Census Bureau relies heavily on self- identification by respon-dents to obtain Information on race and ethnicity American Indian tribes and Alaska Native villages vary in how they determine tribal membership, typically based on family lineage and/ or blood quantum Native Hawaiians are variously defined as having a family lineage and/ or a specified blood quantum traceable to 1778, the time of Captain James Cook's arrival on Hawaiian shores SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, based on in-reformation from the 1990 Census of Population in the following U. S., Bureau of the Census documents Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1994 (Washington, DC U S Government Printing Office, 1994); County & City Data Book, 1994 (GPO, 1994); 1990, Social and Economic Characteristics. Hawaii, 1990 CP- 2- 13 (GPO, September 1993), and "We the First Amer-icans, " September 1993 cluding about 220 Alaska Native tribal or village governments (Indian, Aleut, or Eskimo). Federal policy on Native Hawaiians is more ambiguous, although the United States has apologized for its role in the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. The strong parallels between the history and expe-rience of Native Hawaiians with those of Ameri-can Indians and Alaska Natives provide a basis for including Native Hawaiians within this frame-work. Telecommunications technology offers many opportunities to help Native Americans deepen their cultural roots, empower their communities, strengthen Native governments, and address daunting challenges such as very high unemploy - ment and poverty rates and poor health condi-tions. The promise of telecommunications is by no means assured, however. Indeed, if Native Ameri-cans, collectively, do not gain better understand-ing and control of this technology, the result could be to further undermine Native culture, communi-ty, sovereignty, and self- determination. No single technological solution will address Native American needs. A variety of technolo-gies, working together or complementing one another, will best meet their diverse needs. Com-puter networking, satellite videoconferencing, computers and software, telefacsimile, digital switching, broadcast radio, cable TV, and cellular or wireless communications all have a role to play. Even the basic telephone is important because many (perhaps as much as one- half) rural Native homes do not have a telephone today. For pur-poses of this report, all of these technologies col-lectively are referred to as telecommunications technology. This report focuses primarily on the one- third of Native Americans who are residents of tribal reservations and trust lands, Alaska Native vil-lages, and Native Hawaiian communities located in rural, remote areas (see table 1- 1). The report also has implications for other Native Americans who live in rural or semirural areas (about 15 per-cent) or in metropolitan areas (about one- half). OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES During the course of this study, the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) has observed are-markable increase in the level of interest in tele-communications by Native Americans (see ap-pendix A for a partial list of Native computer networking). Some major organizations, such as the National Congress of American Indians and the American Indian Science and Engineering So-ciety, are including sessions on telecommunica-tions or the information superhighway at annual conferences and meetings. The tribal and commu-nity colleges that serve Native Americans in the contiguous 48 states, Alaska, and Hawaii have taken a strong leadership role in developing and demonstrating new telecommunications applica- 10 tions. Various grassroots groups, from Americans for Indian Opportunity to Pacific Islanders in Communications, are advocating Native use of telecommunications- from the development of - Native- oriented programming to operation of computer networks. OTA's own Native American home page, developed for this study and accessi-ble via the Internet (see appendix B), has attracted widespread interest among Native American technology activists and advocates. OTA also has observed an increase in the num-ber and variety of Native American telecommu-nications pilot projects and demonstrations (see box l- l). Exemplary projects identified during the OTA study span the country east to west from the Oneida Nation's fiberoptic wired community in upstate New York, to the Navajo Nation's tribal telecommunications initiative in New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, to the North Slope Borough's use of distance learning in Alaska above the Arctic Circle, to the Hawaii community college system's two- way videoconferencing among several rural island locations. Despite these positive signs, Native Americans face significant barriers and challenges in realiz-ing the potential of telecommunications. At this time, it is difficult to predict whether the ultimate outcome will be more positive than negative for Native Americans. Two possibilities are de-scribed below. n An Optimistic Year 2000 Scenario Most Alaska Native villages, many American In-dian reservations, and some Native Hawaiian communities are geographically isolated. Under an optimistic scenario, distance education and telemedicine provide widespread access to a range of educational and medical information and ser-vices not otherwise available or affordable. Tele-communications facilitates the shift to disease prevention and health promotion, not just health care and treatment, as the long- term strategy for overcoming serious Native health challenges. Schools, libraries, community service centers, and family wellness clinics broaden access to technology- enhanced services. Telecommunica- Chapter 1 Summary and Policy implications | 3 Top: Molokai High School on Molokai lsland, Hawaii. Bottom: Molokai High School students using personal computers in the classroom. tions improves the economies of scale for produc-ing and distributing Native- oriented educational materials and Native programming to widely dis-persed Native Americans living in both metropol-itan and rural areas. Telecommunications helps stimulate economic development in Native areas. Telecommunica-tions proves to be a necessary, though not suffi-cient, condition for economic revitalization. In this scenario, telecommunications is used to: 1) create jobs in Native- owned telephone, com-puter, broadcasting, and related companies; 2) market Native- produced arts and crafts elec-tronically; 3) develop and promote tourist and rec-reational activities on or near Native lands; 4) pro- 11 4 Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Where applicable, the Uniform Resource Locator for use with Internet browsers is listed in paren-theses. n Oneida Nation Telecommunications Infrastructure Development (Oneida, New York) Fiberoptic wiring to government offices, community centers, and new houses. Internet access provided by NYSERNet, Inc. First tribal home page (http:// nysernet. org/ oneida/) tells the Oneida story of culture and community development. n Cherokee Nation Telecommunications Activities (Oklahoma) In one project, the Cherokee Nation developed a financial information system for the Department of the Interior's Office of Self- Governance. In another project, in partnership with NASA (National Aeronautical and Space Administration) Science Internet, the Sequoyah High School and the W. W. Keeler Complex will be connected to the Internet for scientific and educational use. In the future, the Cherokee Nation is planning to link all Cherokee Nation offices. n Navajo Nation Telecommunications Partnerships and Planning (New Mexico, Arizona, Utah) Individual projects include Internet access through the Crownpoint Pilot Project and the Information Technology Office's development of the Technology and Information Resource Plan. Partnerships to de-velop telecommunications human resources and infrastructure are forming with Crownpoint Institute of Technology, Navajo Community College, National Aeronautical and Space Administration, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, University of New Mexico, and Northern Arizona University, among others. n Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Telecommunications Committee (Oakville, Washington) The Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis formed the five- person Communication, Information, and Technology Committee two years ago, after a series of demonstrations and training from the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) Extension Indian Reservation Program. Spurred by this activi-ty, the Affiliated Tribes of Northwest Indians (ATNI) in Portland recently created a similar committee, the Telecommunications and Technology Committee. The ATNI has 50 member tribes from Montana, Ore-gon, Washington, Idaho, and Alaska (Native villages). n North Slope Borough Distance Education Delivery (Barrow, Alaska) This two- way videoconferencing program originates from a high school studio in Barrow. Video, text, and graphics are transmitted to the North Slope's remote schools via a full- time dedicated satellite link. Courses such as trigonometry and Inupiat studies/ language are now available at schools in remote loca-tions. n Nation of Hawai'i Home Page This home page (http:// hawaii- nation. org/ nation/), supporting the restoration of the Nation of Hawai'i, was put together by the executive administration of the Nation of Hawai'i in Waimanalo, Hawaii, with sup-port from the Educational and Cultural Organization to Advance Restoration and Transition (ECOART), also located in Waimanalo. Hawaii Online, in Honolulu, Hawaii provided Internet access. n Hawaiian Language Revitalization The Komike Hua'oleo (Hawaiian Lexicon Committee) is creating several hundred new Hawaiian words for technology (e. g., modem, hard drive, font, format, left justification, export text, computer monitor, and bulletin board service). Keola Donaghy, an immersion teacher and computer consultant, working with Hale Kuamo'o, the Hawaiian Language Center at the University of Hawaii at Hilo, developed the "Leoki" electronic bulletin board service interconnected through Hawaii FYI, a free state dial- in network. n Tribal Telephone Providers The Office of Technology Assessment located four tribes with telephone companies: Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority, Eagle Butte, South Dakota; Gila River Telecommunications, Inc., Chan-dler, Arizona; Ft. Mojave Telecommunications, Ft. Mojave, Arizona; and Tohono O'Odham Utility Author-ity, Sells, Arizona. The San Carlos Apache Tribe, San Carlos, Arizona, is waiting for a loan approval from the USDA Rural Utilities Service to buy its local telephone exchange. 12 Chapter 1 Summary and Policy Implications 15 n A Sample of Telecommunications Support Organizations Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium, Lincoln, Nebraska Pacific Islanders in Communications, Honolulu Intertribal Geographic Information Systems Council, Pendleton, Oregon BIA Geographic Data Service Center, Lakewood, Colorado United Native American Network, Burlington, Washington Americans for Indian Opportunity, Bernalillo, New Mexico supporter of the INDIANnet BBS Electronic Pathways Alliance, Santa Fe (http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ defs/ independent/ ElecPath/ elecpath. html) n A Sample of Online Information Resources (see appendix B for complete list) BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs) Division of Energy and Mineral Resources, Golden, Colorado (http: // snake2. cr. usgs. gov/) Indian Health Service (http:// www. tucson. ihs. gov/) USDA Extension Indian Reservation Program (gopher:// 134.121.80.31: 70/ 1/ eirp/ eirp. 70) Sioux Nation (http:// www. state. sd. us/ state/ executive/ tourism/ sioux/ sioux. html) Indian Pueblo Cultural Center (http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ defs/ independent/ PCC/ PCC. html) Heard Museum (http:// hanksvillephast. umass. edu/ defs/ independent/ Heard/ Heard. html) Navajo Community College (http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ defs/ NCC. html) American Indian Science and Engineering Society (http:// bioc02. uthscsa. edu/ aisesnet. html) American Indian College Fund (http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ defs/ independent/ AICF. html) Native American Rights Fund (http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ miSc/ NARF. html) National Indian Policy Center (gopher:// gwis. circ. gwu. edu.: 70/ 11/ Centers% 2c% 20Institutes% 2c% 20and% 2OResearch% 2Oat %20GWU/ Centers% 20and% 20Institutes/ National% 20Indian% 20policy% 20 Center) SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995. vide expertise and competitive skills to Native cilitate participation and consultation with their entrepreneurs; 5) provide infrastructure for busi-ness startups in Native areas; and 6) manage Na-tive land and natural and financial resources. Telecommunications technology allows Na-tive Americans to share and broaden their culture electronically within and among Native commu-nities. Computer graphics, software, and multi-media help strengthen and disseminate Native art, language, and dances. Native cultural materials are shared electronically by community and cul-tural centers, libraries, and schools that serve Na-tive Americans. Native- produced TV and radio programming is distributed over Native- owned cable and radio stations and via other stations that reach Native American populations. Native governments- whether at the tribal, village, or community level routinely use vi-deoconferencing and computer networking to fa- geographically dispersed members. This same technology helps strengthen intertribal collabora-tion and facilitates the participation of Native or-ganizations in relevant activities of state and fed-eral governments. Native governments receive federal and state services electronically and deliv-er services electronically to tribal or village mem-bers where appropriate. When federal and state governments are "reinvented," Native Americans use telecommunications to influence the outcome so it is sensitive to their values and visions for the future. z A Pessimistic Year 2000 Scenario The inadequacies of rural Native American econ-omies and telecommunications infrastructure continue to prove too great to overcome. Under 13 6 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Left: Satellite earth station at the Salish Kootenai College on the Flathead Indian Reservation, Montana. The college downloads video programming via satellite for classroom use. Right: American Indian video programming is provided to students and the tribal community via the Iow- power public television station Iocated at the Salish Kootenai College. this pessimistic scenario, unemployment rates still exceed 50 percent on many Indian reser-vations and in most Alaska Native villages, con-tributing to continuing family, health, and sub-stance abuse problems. Most reservations and villages still have weak economies that make gen-erating or attracting investment capital difficult. As a group, American Indians continue to be the most disadvantaged in the United States with re-gard to basic telephone service. In the year 2000, about one- half of American Indian homes in rural areas still do not have any telephone service, far below nationwide averages, reflecting continuing infrastructure deficiencies, low family income, and, in some cases, cultural preferences. In this scenario, the lack of Native leadership on telecommunications continues to limit efforts to plan for and implement infrastructure improve-ments. The vast majority of tribes, reservations, villages, and island communities still do not have a telecommunications strategy or a process in place for developing a strategy or plan. Nor do any of the major nationwide Native American federa-tions or intertribal organizations. This places the Native American community at a disadvantage because many other segments of the United States have long since fully mobilized on telecommu-nications issues. The absence of federal policy or coordination on Native American telecommunications contin-ues through the year 2000, thereby curtailing the development of an appropriate and effective fed-eral role. The Federal Communications Commis-ion (FCC) still does not have a Native American policy, nor has it applied the framework of federal Indian law to telecommunications. The federal agencies that serve Native Americans have yet to develop an interagency approach to meeting the telecommunications requirements of Native Americans and building telecommunications ex-pertise at the tribal, village, or community level. While many agencies do support various individ-ual projects, the sum is still less than the parts. The lack of infrastructure, leadership, plan-ning, funding, and policy means- under this pes-simistic scenario that many of the rural, remote Native areas are left on the sidelines of the tele-communications revolution. These areas are un-able to capture the potential educational, health, economic, social, and cultural benefits of tele-communications applications. In this year 2000 scenario, Native Americans run the risk of being exploited by, rather than controlling, the technolo-gy. Without meaningful and extensive Native in-volvement, telecommunications ends up further undermining Native culture and values and disen-franchising, rather than empowering, Native Americans. POLICY IMPLICATIONS Native American telecommunications policy and activities are clearly lagging behind both: 1) other 14 Chapter 1 Summary and Policy Implications | 7 areas of Native American policy (e. g., self- gover-nance, education, and health care); and 2) the tele-communications policy development and initia-tives in the majority society. While Native American telecommunications activities are in-creasing, the rate of change in the majority society has accelerated markedly in recent years. This re-flects the current emphasis on the national in-formation superhighway, and the further transi-tion of the United States into a post- industrial information economy and society. Absent some kind of policy interventions, Na-tive Americans are unlikely to catch up with, and probably will fall further behind, the majority so-ciety with respect to telecommunications. This takes on greater importance given the likely bene-fits of telecommunications to Native Americans that may be deferred, diminished, or foregone un-der the policy status quo. OTA has identified eight major components to a comprehensive policy framework on Native American telecommunica-tions. The first four emphasize a lead role for Na-tive groups and governmentsP the empowerment of Native Americans in telecommunicationsP with the federal government in a supportive role. The second four emphasize the need to rethink and refocus federal policy strategies to recognize and strengthen Native American telecommunications infrastructure and sovereignty. These require a major federal government role, but also extensive Native American participation to ensure that Na-tive values and sovereignty are strengthened, not weakened. z Empowering Native American Telecommunications Tribal, federal agency, and congressional actions could focus on implementing these four essential elements of an overall Native American telecom-munications policy framework. Grassroots Tribal/ Village/ Community Empowerment At the grassroots level, one key is developing lo-cal sources of telecommunications expertise. Tribal and community colleges are important sources of expertise, as are the small but growing group of Native computer and telecommunica-tions activists and grassroots groups. Native-owned telephone and cable companies and radio stations could provide expertise, especially if the small number now operating could be increased. Another key is developing a grassroots telecom-munications plan. Local tribal/ village/ communi-ty leaders could set up a telecommunications com-mittee or task force, as has been done by, for example, the Navajo Nation (Arizona/ New Mexi-co/ Utah) and the Affiliated Tribes of the Chehalis (Washington). The committee, in consultation with communi-ty leaders and members, could develop a plan or vision of how telecommunications could best meet local Native educational, health, economic and social development, cultural, and other needs. The plan could encourage technology- enhanced collaboration among Native service providersP the integrated delivery of services could be a key goal. A grassroots, bottom- up approach would help assure responsive, culturally sensitive, and self- empowering Native American telecommu-nications. The support of local tribal, village, and community leaders is essential to success. National Native Leadership To complement a grassroots emphasis, another key is strengthening Native American leadership on telecommunications at the national level. The groundwork is already in place. Groups that are in the forefront on Native telecommunications 2 could work with regional and national groups such as the Alaska Federation of Natives, National 2 Examples include the American Indian Higher Education Consortium, American Indian Science and Engineering Society, Pacific Island-ers in Communications, Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium, Intertribal Geographic Information Systems Council, Americans for Indian Opportunity, and Indigenous Communications Association. 15 8 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges An affordable deployment of telecommunications infrastructure in rural, remote Native areas might include three levels or tiers of service: Tier 1: Basic telephone service (with digital switching), single- party line with touchtone and dial- up access (with modem) to computer networks and Internet gateways; cable, broadcast, and/ or satellite TV/ radio; wireless/ cellular telephone where appropriate. For: Individual Native homes, small businesses, and schools. Tier 2: Tier 1, plus high- speed modem or direct connection to computer networks/ lnternet; one- way full motion videoconferencing (with two- way audio) or slow scan/ compressed two- way video via land lines/ satellite. For: Community communication centers, tribal and Native governments (if separate from community centers), tribal and community colleges, some larger businesses. Tier 3: Tiers 1 and 2, plus very- high- speed data communication links and two- way, full- motion video-conferencing (fiberoptic trunk lines to fiber or satellite backbone). For: Major medical centers, universities, business parks, or enterprise zones. SOURCE :Office of Technology Assessment, 1995. Congress of American Indians, and appropriate pendent groups. Both funds and expertise are in Native Hawaiian support groups and service pro-viders (e. g., Alu Like) to set up formal committees and develop a coordinated Native American tele-communications strategy. This eventually could lead to a "Native American Telecommunications Association" or the equivalent. Also, Native organizations could work with universities to develop leadership programs in telecommunications. The Universities of Alaska and Hawaii (and their associated rural campuses and community colleges) seem well suited for this role, as would various universities with American Indian programs. Community colleges and uni-versities would be logical focal points for tele-communications education and training. And Na-tive organizations could work with the private sector, as well as educators, to establish local and regional telecommunications technical assistance centers and programs. Integrated Infrastructure Development The financial resources currently and prospective-ly available to many rural Native communities are insufficient to support development of the tele-communications infrastructure by multiple, inde- short supply. This makes it imperative that tele-communications investments be for technologies and systems that are compatible, complementary, user- friendly, and cost- effective. Pilot projects are important for assessing the potential benefits, costs, and problems associated with tribal/ village use of telecommunications, and provide a basis for sound decisions on infrastructure investment and development. A two- or three- tier telecommu-nications infrastructure will be necessary in many rural Native areas (see box 1- 2) to match technolo-gy and services with needs on an affordable and practical basis. The concept of a community communication center warrants serious consideration, especially in Native areas where it is unrealistic for most homes and offices to have anything more than ba-sic telecommunications in the short- to medium-term. A local high school, community college, li-brary, community/ cultural center, family wellness clinic, multiservice delivery center, or tribal/ vil-lage office could be designated as a community communication center where a wide range of tele-communications equipment and services are available to residents, including students and en-4 16 Chapter 1 Summary and Policy Implications 19 Local internet provider Native radio/ TV station Tribal Iibrary/ n Telecommuting museum n Videoconferencing Tribal n Local area networks college l High- speed internet n Multimedia software n Online database TRIBAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORK Tribal businesses and enterprise zones n Electronic enterprise n Electronic funds transfer n Telemarketing / ( telecommunications ) Tribal government and multiservice providers Tribal hospital/ Indian Health n Geographic information system Service n Electronic benefits transfer n Bureau of Indian Affairs \ telecommunications n Telemedicine Tribal telecommunications or public utility company n n n n n m n Basic telephone service Lifeline and 91 I service Enhanced telephone service (e. g., voice mail, call waiting) Digital switching Internet access Electronic mail Cable television Wireless/ cellular High- bandwidth trunks SOURCE: Madonna Peltier- Yawakle, July 20, 1994, and Office of Technology Assessment, 1995 trepreneurs. A slightly expanded version would economies of scale by aggregating demand for include several key community buildings in a and use of a common telecommunications infra-community telecommunications network (see fig- structure. ure l- l). Either way, the intent would be to pro-vide videoconferencing, computer networking, Native Entrepreneurial Activity multimedia, and other services sooner than would The formation of Native- owned and -operated otherwise be possible, and to achieve considerable businesses and especially telecommunications 17 10 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges . businesses is one of the best ways to: 1) develop grassroots expertise and leadership in telecommu-nications; 2) create new jobs on Indian reserva-tions and in Native villages and communities; 3) stimulate the Native economy; and 4) potential-ly open up new opportunities for Native busi-nesses to compete in regional, national, and in-ternational markets. Success stories like the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority (South Dakota) demonstrate that Native- owned and -operated telephone, cable TV, satellite broad-cast TV, and cellular and wireless companies are within reach. The same holds true for Native-owned and -operated radio stations. But, again, expertise and capital are limited at present. Feder-al grant and loan programs could be reviewed and reprogrammed or restructured to place greater emphasis and focus on supporting Native tele-communications entrepreneurs. Native leaders could consider ways to apply some portion of trib-al revenues to support telecommunications start-up ventures. Above: The OTZ Telephone Cooperative serves the 3,000 residents of Kotzebue, Alaska, 35 miles above the Arctic Circle. Left: Digital switching center at the OTZ Telephone Cooperative. Digital technologies are essential to modern telephone service. n Refocusing the Federal Role Consistent with empowering Native communi-ties, Congress and appropriate federal agencies could take action in the following areas to develop a federal policy on Native American telecommu-nications policy, with the involvement of Native American groups, leaders, and telecommunica-tions activists. Interagency Strategy and Funding Dozens of federal agencies provide some support for Native American telecommunications, but these efforts are uncoordinated and fragmented. The executive branch, with the support and over-sight of Congress, could develop an interagency strategy to provide direction and coordination. This could include an interagency task force or working group. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), Indian Health Service (IHS), Administra-tion for Native Americans (ANA), and National Telecommunications and Information Adminis-tration (NTIA), among others, could combine ef-forts to strengthen the telecommunications infra-structure in Native areas. Improvements in federal agency telecommunications capabilities should 18 Chapter 1 Summary and Policy Implications | 11 be viewed in the context of tribal, village, and community infrastructure development needs. Local and federal initiatives should complement each other where possible. Electronic clearing-houses could be used to provide information on relevant programs and projects, accessible by Na-tive American leaders and technology activists as well as federal personnel. The strategy could be designed to: 1) help en-sure that efforts to downsize and reinvent federal agencies give appropriate weight to Native tele-communications needs and legitimate Native projects; 2) encourage tribes, villages, and com-munities to assume self- direction and control where they have the interest and capability; and 3) establish new mechanisms for interagency and Native government- federal- state partnerships, for example, by crafting more creative and effective interagency agreements and coordinating mecha-nisms that pool resources and technical support. Interagency coordination could help ensure that best use is made of scarce federal dollars for telecommunications education, training, pilot-testing, and infrastructure development in Native communities. Even under the best of circum-stances, finding the funds for Native American telecommunications will be difficult. Native Americans need to make up for previous underin-vestment in telecommunications at a time when most traditional funding sources are under in-creasing pressure, and other basic needs such as housing, food, roads, hospitals, and schools con-tinue unabated. Only recently have Native groups begun to take advantage of grant or loan programs that, for example, provide support for educational technology, rural telephony, rural public radio, and grassroots computer networking. These are among the programs vulnerable to budget cuts. Telecommunications Policy Over the past two years, Native American tele-communications activists have asserted that fed-eral telecommunications policy ignores or con-tradicts the principles of Indian law and federal Indian policy. Based on its research, OTA reached a similar conclusion. The federal agencies with major responsibility for telecommunications policy, such as the FCC and NTIA, have not ap-plied Indian law to telecommunications policy. The agencies with lead responsibility for Indian and other Native programs, such as the BIA, IHS, and ANA, do not have a Native American tele-communications policy, nor are they effectively engaged in the wider telecommunications policy debate. The federal government does not have a coherent focus on telecommunications policy as it relates to Native Americans. The FCC and NTIA could initiate policy inqui-ries on Native American telecommunications, and invite active participation from tribal govern-ments, Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian orga-nizations, Native technology activists, state regu-lators, private companies, and the like. These policy initiatives could address both the need for and content of a government- wide policy state-ment and strategy, and specific topics like sover-eignty and self- determination, universal access, and strategic partnerships. Sovereignty and self- determination At present, sovereignty is primarily applicable to Indian tribes and Alaska Native villages, and sev-eral options are possible. Tribal telecommunica-tions law is in its infancy. Precedents from Indian law suggest that those tribes that wish to assume some degree of telecommunications authority and responsibility now vested in the states and the FCC could legally do so. Some tribes may wish to operate under current state and/ or federal author-ity; others, especially the larger tribes, may choose to establish their own tribal telecommu-nications agency or authority. The existing bal-ance of federal- state relationships would need to be adjusted to accommodate heightened tribal in-volvement. A fundamental question is the extent of tribal authority over telecommunications on tribal lands (e. g., physical infrastructure) and in the air over tribal lands (e. g., frequency spec-trum). The FCC could set up an office of tribal or Native American affairs, include tribal govern- 19 12 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges ments that so desire in regulatory proceedings on a basis similar to states, and over time develop a regulatory policy specifically on Native American telecommunications. Universal access Since 1934, federal telecommunications policy has, in effect, cross- subsidized low- density, high-cost rural areas with revenues from the high- vol-ume, high- profit metropolitan areas and interstate routesP thereby improving rural access. Many ru-ral tribes and villages clearly have a continuing need for universal service fund (USF) cross- subsi-dies, both directly to Native- owned and -operated telecommunications companies and indirectly to other rural telephone cooperatives and compa-nies that serve tribal or village areas. Many rural Native Americans would be further disadvan-taged if the USF were weakened or discontinued. The current universal service mechanism could be strengthened by increasing the types and num-ber of USF contributors, expanding the definition of universal service, and possibly creating mini-mum set- asides for Native rural areas. The im-plications of universal service options for rural Native areas could be explicitly addressed in on-going FCC and NTIA policy inquiries. Tribes could be represented on the joint federal- state board that helps determine USF procedures and allocations. Strategic partnerships Strategic partnerships with tribes, villages, com-munities, and Native service providers could be encouraged by the FCC, NTIA, and Congress. Bell operating companies and other local phone companies, cable TV companies, long- distance carriers, competitive access carriers (including electric power utilities), computer companies, and rural telephone cooperatives serving or adjacent to Native American areasP or desiring to serve these areasP could be urged, required, or given incen-tives to upgrade service. This could be done in col-laboration with Native leaders or even in formal partnership with newly created Native- owned telecommunications companies. The Native telecommunications infrastructure could be given higher priority under the Rural Uti-lities Service (RUS) guaranteed or subsidized telephone loan programs and technical assistance activities. Native- owned companies are eligible, but few tribes or villages have the expertise or awareness to take advantage of RUS programs. A portion of NTIA and the Corporation for Public Broadcasting grant funds could be allocated to ru-ral Native groups and governments for infrastruc-ture development. These funds could be limited to loans, or some mix of loans and grants (including various forms of matching and incentive grants). The few tribes with significant gaming revenues could invest some portion of net profits into tele-communications, as a handful are already doing, and leverage gaming- related telecommunications facilities for broader tribal applications. Information Policy Federal officials need to explicitly consider Na-tive American perspectives when formulating in-formation policy. Native concerns about privacy and about cultural and intellectual property rights on the information superhighway are similar to those of other users. Two specific problems are: 1) controlling access to sensitive religious, spiri-tual, and ceremonial information transmitted elec-tronically; and 2) protecting the integrity of the in-formation content (e. g., Native artwork or traditional healing) from alteration, misrepresen-tation, or misuse. As Native governments make more extensive use of telecommunications and computers, they will need to address a wide range of information policy issues. Indian tribes already have significant authority to set rules and regulate use of information on their own reservations. However, tribal members are citizens of both the tribe and the United StatesP thus constitutional and federal issues such as pri-vacy, security, freedom of speech and press, and the like are relevant. Also, to the extent that tribal information flows electronically on an intertribal or interstate basis, Native American groups will need to collaborate with federal and state regulato- 20 Chapter 1 Summary and Policy Implications 113 ry authorities, commercial telecommunications companies, and a range of public and private sec-tor users. Native American leaders and advocates will, in any event, need to participate more active-ly in federal and state information policymaking to ensure that Native views are fully considered. Further Research and Evacuation This is the first federal government report on Na-tive American telecommunications. The report builds, in part, on the work of Native American ac-tivists and researchers who have been among the first to grasp the potential and risks of telecommu-nications (see box 1- 3). Clearly, the field of Native American telecommunications is still in its early stages. While some policy decisions could be re-sponsibly made today, future applications and policymaking would benefit from significant, con-tinued research on many of the topics discussed in this report. Also, development of cost estimates was be-yond the scope of this report, and will not be feasi-ble until more detailed infrastructure require-ments and options are specified. The absence of cost data need not delay strategic policy actions, however. Nor does this report consider the tele-communications needs of Native Americans liv-ing on other Pacific Islands such as the U. S. terri-tories of Guam and American Samoa and the U. S. Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Is-lands. An improved telecommunications infra-structure could help strengthen the ancestral, cul-tural, and economic ties between Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islander Americans. "For reasons which may become apparent over time, I have become a scout or a runner in this Internet. I drop songs as my offerings as I seek along this new migration path, the Cyber- Bearing Crossing, a new route for singing, a new trail for the dust of our clinging to the tribal contract with this sacred creation. " Turtle Heart (Ojibway Indian), Johannesburg, CA 1 "1 want to see a dream become reality. If any American Indian wishes to communicate to another indi-vidual or tribe, that the capability to do so is available, so we can perpetuate our ways, language, and people into the far reaches of the future... As Sequoyah was included in history for his attempts, let us con-tinue the good struggle for equality in communication, so we can all have a voice and be heard " Andrew Conseen Duff (Eastern Band of Cherokee), Cherokee, NC 2 "Let us move forward to the future carrying with us the best from the past. The time has arrived for the revitalizing and reawakening of our community... Behind the project lies this vision: Native Hawaiians wiII be able to obtain Information and referral to Hawaiian and other social services from a single point of access on each of the major Hawaiian Islands, " Haunani Apoliona, Alu Like (" working, striving together, Natives of Hawai'i"), Honolulu, HI 3 "Native Hawaiian peoples are in danger of being left behind in the telecommunications age., .[ O] pportu-nities for employment, training, and 'bridging the communications gap'. .. between Native Hawaiians be-cause of our island geography (especially in rural locales) would be enhanced by establishment of a 'Na-tive Hawaiian Telecommunications Network." Ku Kahakalau and Jim Hunt, Honoka'a, The Big Island, HI 4 1 Dan Pacheco, "Circles of Light: Tribal Elders Finding Role for Wizardry of Internet, " Denver Post, Mar 291995 p. 1F. 2 AndreW Conseen Duff, "Community Initiative, " statement prepared for the Americans for Indian Opportunity Am-bassador Program, n. d. and "A Tradition of Information Gathering," statement prepared for the National Information Infrastructure hearings, Apr. 12, 1995, Santa Fe, NM 3 Haunani Apoliona, "Toward Collective Action, " Task Force on Hawaiian Services, Nov. 25, 1991, p 2, and "Mult-Service Centers Demonstration Project, " Alu Like Annual Report 1992, Honolulu, Hl, p 6 (continued) 21 14 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges "More than twenty years ago, when the North Slope Borough was first formed, we dreamed of a locally controlled school system where our children would be able to obtain high school diplomas without ever leaving the North Slope... Who would have predicted that one day our students would shrink distances even further through the use of computers and sophisticated video networks?" Pat Aamodt, Superintendent, North Slope Borough School District (86 percent Inupiat Eskimos), Barrow, AK 5 "Over the centuries, American Indians have not enjoyed the benefits of social and economic progress. Now poised at the beginning of an information revolution, we must ensure that Indians have access to the communications technologies that will enable them to participate in this revolution. " Bambi Kraus (Tlingit), National Indian Policy Center, Washington, DC 6 "The need to clarify matters of tribal and federal jurisdiction in the field of telecommunications and in-formation policy is now reaching a critical point... lf tribes do not participate at this juncture, then tribes WI I be omitted entirely and will spend infinite resources to backpedal into this fast moving field. " Randy Ross (Otoe- Missouria Tribe), Rapid City SD, and Ellen R. Kemper, Esq., Santa Fe, NM 7 4 Ku Kahakalau and Jim Hunt, "Native Hawaiian Telecommunications Network, " n. d. 5 "Annual Report 1993 -1994," North Slope Borough School District, Barrow, AK, p 5 6 U. S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Indian Affairs, Oversight Hearing To Examine the Feasibility Of Creating a Permanent Indian Research Center, S. Hrg. 103- 161, 103d Congress, 1st sess. (Washington, DC U S Government Printing Office, May 20, 1993) 7 Randy ROSS and Ellen R. Kemper, "Datafication in Tribal America, " paper prepared for the Aberdeen Area (SD) Tribal Chairmen's Health Board, July 25, 1994. SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1995 Federal policy could redirect agency research programs and encourage the development of cen-ters of telecommunications expertise in Native or-ganizations and universities that serve Native Americans. Federal agencies that support pilot projects and infrastructure development for Na-tive American telecommunications could be re-quired to include an evaluation component. The Office of Management and Budget could require the federal statistical agencies to improve the collection of data on American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians as individual ra-cial and ethnic groups and as Native Americans collectively with a special focus on demograph-ics and telecommunications in rural Native areas. Also, an appropriate federal agency, university research center, and/ or Native organization could, for example: 1) conduct surveys of Native Ameri-can telecommunications needs and infrastructure (see appendix C for an illustrative survey research instrument on baseline infrastructure); 2) main-tain and update the Internet- accessible Native American Resource Page developed by OTA for this study (see figure 1- 2 and appendix B); and 3) help the Native American research community make best use of the already significant range of telecommunications resources available to them (see box 1- 1 and appendix A on computer net-working for Native Americans). 22 Chapter 1 Summary and Policy Implications | 15 Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Project Information: The Office of Technology Assessment's Industry, Telecommunications and Commerce program is in the process of conducting a study entitled Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges. This study was requested by the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs and will address Native Americans, Alaskan Natives, and Native Hawaiians. For further information about this study, the Telecommunications and Native Americans project proposal and summary can be found on the Office of Technology Assessment's ftp server. OTA Homepage URL: http:/ www. ota. gov/ OTA ftp server URL: ftp:// otabbs. ota. gov/ On- line Resource Categories: Government Resources Art and Cultural Resources Academic Resources Organizations and Networks See appendix B for further details. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995. 23 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures ultureP including language, spirituality or religion, cre-ative expression, historical interpretation, traditions, val-ues, and identityP is a cohesive force in Native American society. For much of U. S. history, federal policy had the effect of subjugating Native cultures to that of the majority soci-ety. This was true for American Indians in the contiguous 48 states; Indians, Aleuts, and Eskimos in Alaska; and Native Ha-waiians in Hawaii. Many of today's social and economic prob-lems are generally believed to have been caused or exacerbated by the erosion and loss of culture. Thus, renewing and strengthening Native cultures is considered by Native Americans and others to be a necessary condition for rebuilding healthy Native American communities. In recent decades, federal policy has shifted to rec-ognize the importance of Native American cultures. Telecommunications technologyP broadly defined to include telephone, videoconferencing, computer networking, informa-tion systems, multimedia, radio/ TV, and the likeP offers consid-erable potential to help Native Americans reestablish and strengthen their cultures. It offers new opportunities to save en-dangered Native languages, including traditional stories and his-tories, and to perpetuate language with new educational software and greater opportunities to converse with other Native speakers. Using telecommunications, cultural information (including art, songs, stories, dances, research findings, genealogies, and histor-ical interpretations) can be easily shared and distributed among rural and metropolitan Native American communities. It also al-lows Native Americans, as individuals or through institutions, to broaden public awareness of their cultures. Museums, libraries, |17 24 18 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges and schools would greatly benefit from telecom-munications technologies. They routinely share cultural information and try to promote broader understanding of Native cultures among the U. S. population at large. Culturally sensitive social ser-vice institutions would also benefit from readily available cultural material, such as traditional healing research or genealogical information sys-tems. While sharing cultural material may help broaden public awareness, it also could work against the promotion of Native American cul-tures if the material were nonauthentic. The ease of transmitting and manipulating digitized mater-ial using telecommunication technologies could exacerbate ongoing cultural problems, such as: 1) continuation of negative stereotypes of Native peoples; 2) non- Native Americans posing as spiri-tual leaders and elders in public forums; and 3) the difficulty of protecting sacred information, such as sacred sites of worship and rituals, from both the general public and unauthorized community members. Realizing the benefits will require leadership, training, and adequate funding. Mitigating the problems will require tribal and public informa-tion policies for access, freedom of speech, priva-cy, and security for both users and providers of in-formation and cultural material. To ensure that the technology empowers Native Americans in re-vitalizing their cultures, Native Americans will need to have a central role in controlling, manag-ing, and implementing these technology- en-hanced cultural opportunities. If not, there is the potential that non- Native Americans, knowingly or unwittingly, might disseminate inaccurate in-formation or perpetuate negative cultural stereo-types. If Native Americans do not take an active role, federal and state information policies may not be sensitive to the cultural values of Native American communities. An overall strategy to strengthen Native cultures might include formu-lating an information policy, providing legal protections for cultural property rights, and coor-dinating efforts to use scarce financial resources by distributing them effectively among many competing projects. NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL AND COMMUNITY CHALLENGES For years, Native American cultures and commu-nities have been subjugated by federal and state laws and policies of assimilation (see box 2- 1). However, despite years of repression, Native American values, cultures, and religions have en-dured. Traditional core values include honoring the Earth, according children and elders a very high level of respect, and living a balanced life in which the needs of community, family, and self are all attended to. And traditional Native Ameri-cans show reverence for the environment, Mother Earth and Father Sky, in everyday actions and de-cisions. Moreover, many are less concerned with an individual's role in the economy, a "job" or "ca-reer," than with living a life that reflects valued traditions. These core values have been difficult to pursue in recent times. Many Native American communities face so-cial and economic challenges far greater than most of the United States. High- school dropout rates, suicide, alcoholism, unemployment, and poverty within Native American communities are among the highest in the United States. Specifically, 1 the suicide rate for American Indians is more than twice the rate for all other nonwhites; American Indian youth have the highest high- school drop-out rate of any minority group; the poverty rate for American Indian families is 24 percent compared with 10 percent for the general population; and the poverty rate for several Indian tribes is more than 40 percent (quadruple that of the general popula-tion). A recent Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) survey concluded that BIA high school students "engage in behaviors that put them at risk for significant 1 Harold L. Hodgkinson, with Janice Hamilton Outtz and Anita M. Obarakpor, The Demographics of American Indians: One Percent of the People; Fifty Percent of the Diversity (Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership, Inc., Center for Demographic Policy, 1990). 25 Chapter 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures 119 in the 1890s, Captain A E Woodson brought remarkable energy to his job as an Indian agent When he arrived at the Cheyenne and Arapaho reservation in Oklahoma, he found the Indians "indulging m the grass dance and enjoying the medicine feasts without molestation. " Accordingly, his '( first act was to forbid dances and feasts..." Once begun, Woodson launched himself wholeheartedly into the busi-ness of forbidding. He undertook to prohibit the practices of medicine men or shamans, the custom of sharing goods with relatives, traditional forms of marriage, and visits to other reservations. When the Cheyenne and Arapaho people resisted [Captain Woodson's] interference in their lives, their defiance only convinced Woodson that he was in the right. "An agent must sacrifice any desire to be popular, " Woodson wrote, "if he be Inspired to do his whole duty." 1 When the Cheyenne and Arapaho people resisted his orders and hired another white man to pursue his removal, Woodson wrote to the Department of the Interior, explaining his struggle with his charges. The Indians, he said, showed "a rebellious spirit in opposition to the methods which have been inaugu-rated with the sanction and approval of your office..." This resistance had gone as far as "an open expression of disapproval of my regime, which IS distasteful to the old men who are wedded to barba-rous customs..." Woodson [explained that he] had simply "endeavored to institute newer, and in my opinion, better methods tending to the improvement of the condition of these people..." The Depart-ment's response was, for Woodson, very gratifying. The Indians had to be restrained "from the indul-gence in any practices which tend to continue them in barbarism. ," [wrote the Department]. SOURCE Excerpted from Patricia Nelson Limerick, Ph. D., "The Repression of Indian Religious Freedom, ''NARFLega/ Revlew, native American Rights Fund, n d Bracketed material provided by OTA for clarity. 1 United States Office of lndian Affairs, Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1895 (Washington, DC U S Government Printing Office, 1895), p 229, and Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs 7898 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1898), p 234 mortality, morbidity, disability, and social prob- Underlying these social problems is frequently lems which extend from youth into adulthood." 2 Some statistics from this report include the fol-lowing: 13 percent of students reported carrying guns during the previous 30 days; 51 percent were involved in a physical fight during the previous 12 months; 10 percent were threatened or injured with a weapon on school property during the past 12 months; 43 percent had five or more drinks in a row in one day during the past 30 days; 12 percent reported that they had been pregnant or had im-pregnated someone; and 29 percent seriously con-sidered attempting suicide during the past 12 months. a lack of strong cultural identity at the individual, tribal, and pantribal levels. The question of who is an "Indian, " "Alaska Native," or "Native Ha-waiian" divides Native Americans into separate political groups. The problem stems from the fact that authenticity is not just a matter of blood quan-tum, but is rooted in the unquantifiable notions of spirituality and cultural or community affiliation. Between 1980 and 1990, the U. S. Census mea-sured a 38- percent increase in the American in dian and Alaska Native population. This large in-crease has been attributed to two phenomena other than real growth in the Native American popula-2 A total of 5,217 BIA high school students at 45 BIA high schools responded. Charles Geboe, Lana Shaughnessy, and John Reimer, 1994 Health Risk Behaviors of High School Students Attending Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools (Washington, DC: Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Indian Education Programs, 1994). 26 20 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges . Top: Eskimo Village of Kotzebue, Alaska, as seen from the air Located about 600 air miles northwest of Anchorge, the village is inaccessible by land and surrounded on three sides by water that is frozen most of the year. Bottom: A single runway serving Kotzebue provides the only year- round access. tion mixed- blood Native Americans changing their affiliation to Native American; and non- Na-tive Americans self- identifying themselves as Na-tive American. Perhaps the positive portrayal of Native Americans in the mass media in the last decade is partly responsible for this change. These shifts have brought into sharp focus the lack of consensus on a definition of Native American or a mechanism to determine authenticity of cultural identity. The determination of authenticity is im-portant not only for political and legal determina-tions of eligibility for entitlements or rights, but also for the protection and development of spiritu-al and cultural values. American Indians and Alaska Natives also face major environmental problems on lands that in-clude two- thirds of the nation's uranium deposits, significant deposits of oil and natural gas, and mil-lions of acres of forests. 3 Pollution from past in-dustrial and extraction activities and dumping of waste materials persist on several reservations. And some reservations and Alaska Native villages are struggling with sanitation problems. 4 Many Native communities must cope with a high degree of physical isolation. Most Alaska Native villages are reachable year- round only by air, have limited access by water (during the brief summer), and have no road connections. Many American Indian reservations are in remote rural areas, several hours or more away by car from the nearest small city or metropolitan area. Many Na-tive Hawaiian communities, although accessible byroads, are located in the outlying, more remote areas and islands. Also, inter- island travel be-tween Hawaiian communities is primarily by air, 3 Some enviironmental initiatives include: l) Niiwin, a coalition of Wisconsin tribes facing off with the Exxon Corp. over a metallic- sulfide mine adjacent to the Mole Lake Reservation; 2) California Indians for Cultural and Environmental Protection, working to atop sewer sludge dumping on rancherias in southern California 3) Citizen Alert Native American Program, opposing a national radioactive waste repository at Yucca Mountain, a sacred site; 4) Eyak Rain Forest Preservation Fund, protecting land, water, and forests in Alaska's Prince William Sound. the site of the Exxon Valdez disaster, 5) Snoqualmie Falls Reservation Project, defending a sacred site at Snoqualmie Falls from an expanded hydroelectric facility; and 6) Native Action, protecting the sacred Sweet Grass Mountains of Montana where a moratorium on gold mining will soon expire. David Tilsen, electronic mail posted on the aisesnet general list server, Apr. 25, 1995. 4 For a discussion of the geographic, social, and economic settings of remote Alaska Native villages and the problems providing safe water and waste sanitation systems, see U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, An Alaskan Challenge: Native Village Sanitation, OTA-ENV- 591 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, May 1994). 27 Chapter 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures | 21 as is the case for most travel between Alaska Na-tive villages. As a consequence of rural isolation, and fre-quently a lack of jobs on the reservations, Native Americans may make several major moves to and from reservations or rural areas as they balance economic necessity with their desire to maintain family and cultural ties. Thus, although this report primarily addresses the needs of Native Ameri-cans who live in rural areas or reservations, the distinction between a "rural" and "urban" Native American will become blurred over time (see box 2- 2). Policy designed today to help rural and reser-vation Native Americans will likely affect urban Native Americans at some later time, and vice ver-sa for policy designed to affect urban Native Americans. The well- being of Native Americans and their communities is a function of their: 1) cultures and core values; 2) physical, spiritual, and mental health of individuals and families; 3) quality and level of education, health care, and other vital lo-cal services; 4) employment prospects and condi-tions; 5) environmental health; and 6) effective-ness and responsiveness of the tribal, village, or community government leaders and elders. 5 A strong sense of the interconnectedness and inter-dependence of these components is central to Na-tive concepts of well- being and cannot be overem-phasized. The ability to communicate is critical to maintaining these connections. In many respects, mainstream society is begin-ning to recognize and incorporate Native Ameri-can core values and notions of well- being. Educa-tion is now "lifelong learning." The medical profession has a growing awareness of how envi- ronment, cultural traditions, and family support contribute to physical and mental health. The very notion of "health" includes feelings of well- being. Some Native beliefs, such as opposition to min-ing, run counter to the mainstream. Others, such as protecting the environment against pollution, are shared by the mainstream society and are an important public priority. In reality, often the components of community do not work well together because of political con-flicts and tensions, scarce resources, and daunting socioeconomic challenges. Partnerships, joint ventures, and interagency councils are all attempts to create the necessary links for community orga-nizations to share resources and interact to solve problems. In general, federal policies for Native Americans need to consider Native American concepts of culture and community, such as "hon-oring the earth" and "community interconnected-ness." Successful policies are most likely to result from significant Native American participation. RENEWING AND STRENGTHENING NATIVE LANGUAGES Native Americans have a rich oral tradition that continues today. The written form of most Native languages developed after the arrival of European settlers. However, to this day, some Native stories and histories are communicated only orally or pic-tographically to maintain the tradition. For exam-ple, some nations of the Iroquois Confederacy have maintained rituals of storytelling that have never been written down. State and federal policy, after decades of Native language suppression, now recognizes the importance of language re-5 A number of nonprofit organizations provide cultural and community services and resources. See, e. g., Americans for Indian Opportunity (Bernalillo, NM); American Indian College Fund (New York, NY); American Indian Ritual Object Repatriation Foundation (New York, NY); American Indian Resource Council (Oakland, CA); American Indian Science and Engineering Society (Boulder, CO); Association on Ameri-can Indian Affairs (New York, NY); Honor Our Neighbor's Origins and Rights (Milwaukee, WI); Indigenous Environmental Network (Bemid-ji, MN); Indigenous Women's Network (Lake Elmo, MN); Institute of American Indian Art (Santa Fe, NM); Native American Council (New York, NY); Native American Rights Fund (Boulder, CO); Native California Network (Bolinas, CA); North American Indian Women's Associa-tion (Gaithersburg, MD); Northwest Renewable Resources Center (Seattle, WA); Solidarity Foundation (New York, NY); and United National Indian Tribal Youth (Oklahoma City, OK). 28 22 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges "At the moment, the question (How are they doing) can just barely be asked of American Indians, in that the information about them is so uncoordinated and fragmented." "The 1980 census data on the 'demographic, social, and economic characteristics of American Indian tribes' were only released in a Census Bureau publication dated February 7, 1990, a full decade after the last census was finished!" "At a time when policy makers are beginning to rely on demographic data for decision- making and program planning, it is a disgrace that data on American Indians are so scarce. " 1 Approximately two- thirds of Native Americans live away from reservations and rural hometowns many to go to school or work in more urban areas. 2 This statistic, however, does not indicate the frequency of back and forth movements or the underlying forces at work. Two factors shape this dynamic: a strong need I to maintain familial, cultural, and religious ties; and employment opportunities. Office of Technology As- I sessment staff discussed this topic during numerous interviews and constructed the following representa-tive scenario of Native American mobility. Many native Americans spend their youth and retirement predominantly m their homelands Many first ' leave the reservation to attend a boarding school or college. Others leave to attend a vocational. profes-sional, or graduate school. Still others may first leave to attend a professional conference or meeting A I large number of Native American youth are growing up in urban areas, yet maintain close ties with relatives by visits and participation in religious and cultural activities. Some may even spend the summer months with relatives or friends to learn traditional ways and participate in activities such as farming, hunting ranching, cooking, and a wide variety of arts including crafts, weaving, and pow- wow dancing Many I I adults find employment off the reservation. This could be a few miles or a few hundred miles away from I home, Those far away must and do make extraordinary efforts to visit friends and family, visit sacred sites, and participate in religious rites and ceremonies. in retirement years, many may make a final move back to I the reservation. Others may move back temporarily or permanently to take care of aging parents. This picture has two Important implications. First, there is not a static division between those who choose to live on or away from reservations and villages, but rather a strong back- and- forth mobility This means that telecommunications infrastructure on reservations and in rural villages will Iikely benefit the ma- jority of Native Americans at some point in their lives. Moreover, declining costs and/ or enhanced telecom-munications such as videoconferencing and computer networking will promote ties and "community" re-gardless of space and time. Second, the balance between "cultural pull" and "employment push" might be significantly changed by telecommunications applications that spur economic development on reserva-tions, For example, employment in teleservices, electronic commerce, telecommunications companies and Native programming are all opportunities that reservations and rural areas might embrace to increase the number of jobs, On the other hand, these opportunities are already available off the reservations and are motivating new college graduates and other wage- earners to leave the reservations 1 Harold L. Hodgkinson, with Janice Hamilton Outtz and Anita M Obarakpor, The Demographics of American In-dians, One Percent of the People, Fifty Percent of the Diversity (Washington, DC Institute for Educational Leadership Inc., Center for Demographic Policy, 1990), pp. iv- 1. 2 The 1990 census reported that 437,431 American Indians and Alaska Natives (22.3 percent) out of a total of 1,959,234 Iive on reservations or associated trust lands. Another 200,789 (1 O 2 percent) live within former reservation areas in Oklahoma, "Tribal Jurisdiction Statistical Areas, " where tribes retain certain types of tribal jurisdiction. Another 47,244 (2.4 percent total, or 55 percent of Alaska Natives) live on Alaska's one reservation, the Annette Islands Reserve or in an "Alaska Native Village Statistical Area, " which delimits Iiving areas of tribes, bands, clans, groups, villages, com-munities, or associations Jack Utter, American Indians. Answers to Today's Questions (Lake Ann, Ml National Wood-lands Publishing Company, 1993), p 20 SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1995 -- 29 Chapter 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures | 23 newal and strengthening- primarily to Native peoples, but also to the mainstream society. Mi-crocomputers and software offer new opportuni-ties to record, teach, and utilize languages, in writ-ten, graphic, and oral forms. Prototypes appear to be successful. For exam-ple, microcomputer keyboards, fonts, and operat-ing system software have been adapted for the Na-tive Hawaiian language 'Olelo Hawai'i (see box 2- 3). And students on the Hualapai Reservation in Arizona and the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota are learning their Native languages via multimedia programs that allow them to check their pronunciations with the computer voice. 6 Software flexibility and new computer pro-gramming tools facilitate the development of educational language applications. Multimedia technology, moreover, allows inclusion of audio, video, pictures, and icons to make the application "user- friendly." The development of standardized hardware and software tools would reduce the cost and increase the availability of applications that help record and teach Native languages. A com-mon and portable technology platform seems es-sential, given the large number of Native lan-guages (187 in North America by one estimate). 7 Once Native languages are put into electronic form, they would then be suitable for a variety of other electronic applications. Electronic Native language dictionaries could be prepared and co-pied via diskette, CD- ROM, or online. The Native languages could be used in Native electronic bul-letin boards (e. g., the Leoki Hawaiian language bulletin board), and in Native audio, video, and film material prepared for educational and cultural purposes. Learning a Native language requires more than classroom instruction; it is reinforced through in-formal everyday use. The Leoki bulletin board Top: Honokaa High School located in the rural community of Honokaa, The Big Island, Hawaii. Bottom: A Honokaa high school teacher demonstrates use of personal computers for Native Hawaiian language instruction. Computer software offers new opportunities for students to learn Native language and culture. provides an opportunity for those learning Ha-waiian to practice the language by creating anon-line community of interest that includes Hawaiian speakers locally and around the world. For exam-ple, Hawaiian speakers in California now use Leo-ki to connect with Hawaiian speakers in Hawaii. 6 A. J. S. Rayl, "New Technologies, Ancient Cultures," Omni, vol. 15, No. 10, August 1993. p. 48. 7 In North America, 149 out of 187 languages (80percent) are no longer being taught to children. Catherine Gysin, "The Horizon" Utne Reader, vol. 57, May/ June 1993, pp. 23- 24. Leanne Hinton of the University of California at Berkeley estimates that there are between 200 and 250 Native languages in North America and 500 of them are in California. Tino Ramirez, Hawaiian Language Is Flourishing Via Corn-puters, Internet" The Honolulu Advertiser, Feb. 19, 1995, p. A5. 30 24 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges "I am proud to be Hawaiian. I learn hula, we sing Hawaiian songs, and I Iike to listen to Hawaiian music on the radio. I like to help people and I like being one 'ohana and sharing things with others. I also like to eat Hawaiian food. "1 Kelsey, age 8 'Olelo Hawai'i became a written language when missionaries arrived in Hawaii in the early 1800s Until the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, newspapers flourished and both native Hawaiian and missionary children were bilingual in 1896, 'Olelo Hawai'i was outlawed, and the language de-clined until 1978 when the State of Hawaii legally recognized it again Today, there are Hawaiian lan-guage Immersion programs such as the Punana Leo Hawaiian language preschool program (six schools on five Islands), and the Kula Kaiapuni Hawai'i program for elementary school children sup-ported by the Hawaii Department of Education. The use of computers and telecommunications in Hawaiian schools can greatly reinforce the learn-ing process. Keola Donaghy, an Immersion teacher and computer consultant. modified computer key-boards and software Working with Hale Kuamo'o, the Hawaiian Language Center at the University of Hawaii at Hilo, Donaghy developed the Leoki electronic bulletin board service (BBS) with an Hawaiian language graphical user interface (GUI). Donaghy has created Hawaiian fonts, translated programs into Hawaiian and is working on translating a computer operating system The Komike Hua'oleo (Ha-waiian Iexicon committee) is creating several hundred new Hawaiian words for technology (e g mo-dem, hard drive, font, format, left justification, export text, computer monitor, and bulletin board ser-vice). The Leoki BBS has greatly benefited teachers and students alike. It offers electronic mail, public conferences, chat sessions, online references (e. g., English- Hawaiian and Hawaiian- English dictio-naries), and online periodicals (e. g , the Hawaiian Language Center publishes a monthly newspaper in Hawaiian An online voting booth allows polls to be taken on important issues Teachers can order books, videos, audiotapes, and other learning materials with online forms Use of Leoki has resulted in tremendous savings in U. S. mail and Inter- island phone charges For now, Leoki is interconnected through the Hawaii FYI network, but in the future it will be an on- ramp to the Internet and a bridge to native Hawaiians on the mainland, as well as students enrolling in Hawaiian language courses in high school, college and adult continuing education classes throughout Hawaii. 1 Joyce Ahuna- Ka'ai'ai (ed.), He Alo A He Alo Face to Face: Hawaiian Voices on Sovereignty (Honolulu, HI: American Friends Service Committee, 1993), p 99 SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, based on information from Keola Donaghy, "'Enehana Kamepiula Technology for a Hawaiian Speaking Generation, " Ties That Bind 1994 Conference Proceedings (Cupertino CA Apple Computer 1994) pp. 71- 80 Radio and television broadcasting are another The Apache tribe is also in the process of develop-way to reinforce Native language learning. For ex- ing an Apache- language TV station. 8 ample, tribal radio station KNNB, on the Fort Advocates for the survival of endangered lan-Apache Indian Reservation in Arizona, runs guages can join list servers and online discussions XI- second spots in Apache language instruction. 8 Ronnie Lupe, "Chairman's Corner," Fort Apache Scout, vol. 33, No. 26, Apr. 14, 1995, pp. 2- 3. 31 Chapter 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures 125 An internetwork is a computer network of interconnected computer systems and networks that can seamlessly communicate. The Internet is the largest such global internetwork, estimated to have about 48 million users (assuming 10 users per host computer) in more than 146 countries (electronic mail connectivity) The global internetwork has many names such as the "Net," the ' { Matrix," or "Cyber-space" in February 1995, about 48,000 networks (4.8 million host computers) worldwide made up the Internet. And these numbers are growing very fast. The Internet began in 1969 with ARPANET, the first wide area network (WAN) that was a project of the U. S. Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency. ARPANET was a defense pro-totype to demonstrate uninterrupted communications with packet- switching technology, as might be necessary during wartime. in 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) installed a new national backbone (i. e., a high- capacity link between regional networks). For several years, the Internet primarily served the information, computing, and communications needs of scientists and engineers. The first applications were remote use of computers, file transfers, and electronic mail (e- mall) Since 1985, NSF's open interconnection policy has catalyzed network expansion beyond defense and research networks to include government, education, and commercial networks, and beyond the United States to include the whole world. This expansion was fostered by an established transmission protocol, the Internet Protocol (1P), that all new entrants agreed to use (85 countries now have full IP backbone connectivity). Today, there are many IP internetworks in addition to those that comprise the Internet. Altogether there are thousands of individual applications running on the Internet, but the top 10 com-prise about 97 percent of the traffic. Some of the most- used applications, in terms of percent of total bytes of traffic in February 1995 on the NSF backbone, are the Gopher search application (2.6 percent), telnet remote computer use (3.2 percent), smpt electronic mail (5 percent), netnews news service (9 percent), World Wide Web browser (20 percent), and FTP file transfers (27 percent). 1 in the future, even more growth is expected, most of it from new commercial traffic Business ap-plications such as electronic data interchange and electronic cash are newly available, and electronic commerce pilot projects such as CommerceNet in California's "Silicon Valley '' are in the works This change in orientation from research to commerce will present new challenges, but has the potential to turn the Internet into the nation's premier economic resource, serving government, academia, and in-dustry. 1 Information from the National Science Foundation FTP file server, ftp:// nls. sf net/ statistics/ nsfnet/ 1995/ n5f- 9502. high-lights. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995. on the Internet (see box 2- 4). 9 Large commercial tion has grown up not speaking their traditional subscription networks and smaller electronic bul- languages. Many elders are now trying to revive letin board services also provide forums for online their languages by teaching their grandchildren or discussions of Native languages. going into the schools to speak with language stu-The challenge of renewing Native languages dents. Most believe that language and lore can should not be underestimated. An entire genera- only be taught in person where facial expressions, 9 For example, the Australian National University maintains an Internet list server (an electronic forum whereby electronic mail is distrib-uted to all subscribers to the "list") on endangered languages. To subscribe, send electronic mail to majordomo@ coombs. anu. edu. au. in the body of the message, type "subscribe Endangered- Languages- L ." 32 26 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges gestures, and tones are conveyed in personal set-tings. The elders are in the best position to teach and pass on language and traditional cultures. If elders are encouraged and assisted in the use of the technology to record the language and work with software developers, the resulting language and culture applications will greatly benefit from their knowledge and wisdom. Without the guidance of elders on technology use for Native cultural pur-poses, students will be primarily exposed to, and will likely adopt, the language and culture of the mainstream. PROTECTING SACRED SITES AND OBJECTS Native Americans accord great importance and reverence to sacred land sites and objects, and instruments for religious, ceremonial, and burial purposes. 10 Federal policy recognizes the impor-tance of these sites and objects, and requires agen-cies to be sensitive to the effects of federal pro-grams and activities on Native American religious beliefs and practices. For example, federal law re-quires federal agencies and federally funded insti-tutions (approximately 5,000) to compile invento-ries of burial remainsP Native American skeletons, funerary and sacred objects, and other items of cultural importanceP and to repatriate these items when requested by the tribe or village of origin, in accordance with the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA). 11 Increasingly, these groups are re-quired to consult with Native leaders as part of their scientific research (e. g., for permits to study collections or to pass completed studies to tribal councils for prepublication review) or for land- use planning to ensure that Native religious and cul-tural values are considered and sacred sites and objects protected. Computer information systems with electronic databases are ideally suited for keeping track of information on millions of artifacts and sacred sites through initial inventories and continuing updates from Native groups, scientists, and land managers. The description and location of sensi-tive sites could be included in geographic in-formation systems maintained directly by tribes and other Native groups, or by relevant federal agencies (tribal access and integrity would need to be ensured). Electronic inventories and timely in-formation could be distributed to Native leaders using computer networking. For example, the Na-tional Park Service announces NAGPRA review committee meetings on the Internet and maintains the National Archeological Database (see box 2- 5). Privacy is a concern, however, because some sacred sites may be so sensitive that widespread public knowledge could compromise their sancti-ty. Native groups would need to be involved from the outset to ensure appropriate inventory (and site) security and privacy. In some cases, sensitiv-ity may be so high that online dissemination would be too risky. The pace of reclamation and repatriation is also a concern; many tribes do not have the resources to handle and store large num-bers of artifacts. Computer networking has accel-erated the rate of activityP meetings, confer-ences, rules- making, and decisionmakingP of many concerned parties, while leaving others (no-tably non- networked Native Americans) unin-formed and without reasonable opportunities to participate. Videoconferencing could be used to facilitate Native consultations with federal land managers. Tribes and villages are frequently located in re-mote areas that are far from the federal regional headquarters offices, making travel to meetings 10 See Todd Wilkinson, "Ancestral Lands," National Parks, vol. 67, No. 7- 8, July 1993, pp. 30- 35. 11 See Virginia Morell, "An Anthropological Culture Shift," Science, vol. 264, April 1994, pp. 20- 22; Ellen K. Coughlin, "Returning Indian Remains," Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 40, No. 28, Mar. 16, 1994, pp. A8- A9, A16; and June Camille Bush Raines, "One Is Missing: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: An Overview and Analysis," American Indian Law Review, vol. 17, No. 2, 1992, pp. 639- 664. To subscribe to an electronic forum on NAGPRA, send the message "subscribe nagpra- l" to majordomo@ world. std. com. 33 Chapter 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures 127 The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990 is the latest legisla-tion in a series of laws that protect Native American archeological artifacts, culture, and/ or religious freedom, Including the American Antiquities Act of 1906, National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) of 1978, the Archeological Resources Protection Act of 1979, and the National Museum of the American Indian Act (NMAIA) of 1989. 1 Another bill, the Native American Cultural Protection and Free Exercise of Religion Act, was considered in 1994, but was not enacted. NAGPRA has created a great need for computer information services and databases. Museums must inventory collections and notify tribes (including Alaskan and Hawaiian villages). And tribes are being swamped with paper inventories sent to them from hundreds of museums. The Department of the Interior's National Park Service, with funds authorized by Congress, created the online National Archeo-logical Database (NADB) to gather, as well as disseminate, information related to preserving America's archeological heritage. NADB assists the implementation of NAGPRA policy with a special NAGPRA module. NADB also features a reports module with 100,000 citations of archeological investigations, a per-mits module with federal excavation permits issued before 1984, and mapping capabilities at the state and local levels. The Park Service works in partnership with federal, state, local, and tribal government agencies, professional societies, and educational and scientific organizations to keep NADB records up to date. The reports module is updated with help from state historic preservation officers, state arch-eologists, and the Department of Defense, The permits module is updated with help from the Smithso-nian's National Anthropological Archives. The NAGPRA module features guidance on implementing NAGPRA. It provides the full text of NAG-PRA as well as regulations. It identifies contacts for Indian tribes and federal agencies and reports on activities and meetings, including the NAGPRA review committee. The NADB- Reports and NADB- NAGPRA databases are now available via modem, remote Iogin, or Internet. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers can access NADB through its automated network, CEAP. 1 For a detailed discussion of federal legislation and regulations, including how cultural resources management and tribal religious values can be integrated into the review process established by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), see Dean B Suagee, "American Indian Religious Freedom and Cultural Resources Management Pro-tecting Mother Earth's Caretakers, " American Indian Law Review, vol. 10, No 1, 1983, pp. 1- 58 SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, based on information from the U. S. Department of the Interior, National Park Ser-vice, Archeological Assistance Division, "NADB Access" (pamphlet), Washington, DC, 1994 and hearings difficult or impossible. While face- record, develop, and share cultural resources. Na-to- face interaction may be preferable, the elec- tive activities, traditions, sites, and sounds can be tronic equivalent may be a more effective substi- stored on videotape, videodisc, and CD- ROM; tute than telephone or mail. transmitted by radiowaves, copper telephone lines, and fiberoptic cables; and broadcast/ dis-RECORDING, DEVELOPING, AND played by radio, TV, or computer monitor. New SHARING NATIVE CULTURES electronic works of art that reflect and inspire Na-Computer and communication technologies are tive cultures are possible in multimedia formats. revolutionizing the ability of Native Americans to When digitized, these electronic materials can be 34 28 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges transmitted over any distance without loss of qual-ity or integrityP for example, within a single tribe or local community, among several tribes or vil-lages across the country, or across regional or na-tional networks of institutions and communica-tion outlets that reach Native Americans. Also, unlike a phonograph record or analog audiotape, CD- ROMs do not wear out. However, like records and record- players, CD- ROMs and CD- ROM players may become obsolete over time, replaced with cheaper, higher capacity, or smaller versions. Nevertheless, these advanced technologiesP for recording, developing, and sharingP help bring together the emerging Native American cultural infrastructure. Native leaders, elders, historians, artists, film-makers, composers, storytellers, and advocates feel a strong need to maintain and develop Native cultures, and increasingly understand the poten-tial of telecommunications technologies. Provi-sion for Native programming must accompany new wires and conduits. Native- language, Native-produced, and Native- relevant programming is an effective response to the onslaught of mass media that Native activists and scholars decry as a key contributor to cultural erosion. New technologies for Native programming include video camcord-ers, digital audiotape recorders, and a multitude of software applications for everything from desktop publishing to computer animation. Because many of these technologies are de-signed for personal use, home- grown productions are proliferating. For example, students and pro-fessors at the Oglala Lakota College on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota are "creating CD- ROMs on everything from the Bigfoot Mas-sacre in 1890 to the Wounded Knee Uprising in 1973 . . . [and] in Window Rock, Arizona, the Na-vajo tribe is creating a CD- ROM on their tradi-tional world view." 12 Recently, the Ojibwe K- 9 schools on the White Earth Reservation in Minnesota started using a Native- made CD- ROM entitled "Culture and His-tory of the White Earth Ojibwe." This CD- ROM, the result of a two- year effort to record oral histo-ries and scan historical documents and photographs, was supported by a $50,000 grant from the Blandon Foundation. Before it was created, "teachers had little information about the tribeP most couldn't even pronounce Ojibwe words [and] students had little understanding of the culture and heritage that shaped their ances-tors' lives." 13 The number of advocacy and Native media arts centers that train or support Native programming is small. There is only one national training center, the Indigenous Broadcast Center, for Native Americans in public radio broadcasting. Other groups include the Indigenous Communications Association, Native American Public Broadcast-ing Consortium, Institute of American Indian Arts, Native American Producers Alliance, Ab-original Film and Video Artists Alliance, and Pa-cific Islanders in Communications. Given the cul-tural imperative and limited monetary support, these centers have learned to "do more with less." Because of the broadcast nature of media arts and the ability to easily share digitized multimedia, support for Native programming will help to maintain, develop, and share Native cultures. As noted by Native filmmaker Loretta Todd, one of 12 Rayl, op. cit., footnote 6, p. 48. 13 Peggy Healy Stearns, "History Comes Alive: A School District Creates Its Own CD- ROM on Local Native American Culture," Electronic Learning, vol. 13, No. 2, October 1993, pp. 8- 9. 35 Chapter 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures | 29 Left: Cultural Center of the Oneida Nation, New York. The Center houses Native art galleries, educational facilities, and a gift shop for visitors and tourists. Right: An Oneida Nation computer specialist demonstrates the first home page implemented by an Indian tribe. The home page provides information on the history and culture of the Oneida Nation. The Oneida Nation believes that making cultural information available to other tribes and the general public through the Internet will help promote the rebirth and understanding of the Oneida culture. The home page is accessible via the Oneida World Wide Web site (see appendix B for details). the key concerns of Native filmmakers "is the need to heal our community. . . the practical side to this means getting access to equipment, to broadcasting opportunities." 14 Current efforts to train new Native program-mers appear to be innovative and high in quality. For example, the Indigenous Broadcast Center, a project of Alaska Public Radio Network, was re-cently awarded grants from the National Alliance for Media Arts and Culture (NAMAC) in Oak-land, California, and the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) . 15 The NEA grant will create part-nerships between Native radio producers and ar-tists to produce feature- length radio arts pieces. The NAMAC grant will be used to conduct the fourth annual award- winning Alaska Native Youth Media Institute, an intensive eight- day resi-dential hands- on workshop led by Alaska's top media professionals in radio, video, and journal-ism. About 120 tribal and village museums or cul-tural centers focus on the history and culture of in-dividual Native groups. 16 Few use electronic technology today, but tribal cultural centers could be future users of electronic cultural materials. Several commercial CD- ROMs on Native Ameri-cans are available for tribes that lack the resources to create their own. 17 Exposure to multimedia CD- ROMs could stimulate greater local interest in producing materials. Telecommunications technology could benefit local schools and community colleges that serve areas with high concentrations of Native Ameri-cans. Many such schools and colleges already make at least some use of instructional technology (including educational software, film, video, and/ or distance- learning videoconferencing), and thus seem to be good candidates for new electronic ma-terials as part of history, culture, and language courses. For example, the Red Lake Elementary 14 Sally Berger, "American Indians: The Films of a Native Daughter," Interview, vol. 23, No. 4, April 1993, p. 113. 1 5 "IBC Receives Specialized Training and Institute Institute Grants," Tundra Times, vol. 34, No. 5, Jan. 18, 1995, p. 5. 16 Morell, op. cit., footnote 11, p. 22. 17 For example, "The American Indian: A Multimedia Encyclopedia" is available for $295 from Facts on File, a company based in New York City. Vicki Wood, "Reflections on History: The American Indian," Electronic Learning, vol. 13, No. 2, October 1993, p. 35. 36 30 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges and High Schools in Minnesota received an award from the INFORMS (Internet for Minnesota Schools) program to establish a reservation- to-reservation Internet "key pal" program. 18 The stu-dents will be encouraged to learn language arts, geography, Ojibwe culture, and computer tech-nology. They will develop a database of American Indian schools, along with their Internet address-es, which will be made accessible on the IN-FORMS Gopher and World Wide Web servers. Technology could, likewise, assist libraries and information centers that serve Native American communities, whether stand- alone or collocated with another institution such as a school or service center. Although historically paper- based, li-braries are now accustomed to providing informa-tion using various media. They would likely be ready users of new electronic cultural materials, assuming, as with schools, that training and re-source issues could be resolved. Many libraries now maintain record, tape, video, and software collections, as well as CD- ROM database systems and computer networks. In a recent project, NYSERNet, Inc., with fi-nancial and equipment grants from the J. M. Ka-plan Foundation and Apple Computer, connected five rural libraries and the Onondaga Indian Na-tion in New York to the Internet. 19 The premise of the project was "that the public library can serve as the intermediary, or 'linking agent, ' between the rural population and the evolving network of elec-tronic information." 20 Critical to the success of the project was personalized support for partici-pants. The barriers included high long- distance telephone charges, limited access to points- of-presence, and lack of awareness in the broader community. These libraries were not specifically involved in building a new library- wide informa-tion system, but the project did demonstrate suc-cessful use of resources on the Internet, consid-ered to be the largest virtual library in the world. In another application, Apple Computer spon-sored Project Jukebox through its Apple Library of Tomorrow grant program. 21 The goal of Project Jukebox was to record oral histories. The project team encountered a common dilemmaP to make the audio recordings widely available while pro-tecting the rights of the interviewees. Users of Project Jukebox are now required to acknowledge that they have read the release agreement before proceeding (see box 2- 6). A scaled- down database will be provided to the National Park Service, presumably for use by tourists in national parks. The database will also be archived using digital audiotape and, in time, will be available on CD-ROM. No one is certain what the library of the future will look like, or what role it will play in the emerging National Information Infrastructure (see box 2- 7). Tribal libraries may want to main-tain electronic databases pertaining specifically to Native American issues, or even to specialize in one area such as Indian law. They may choose a dominant role in cultural protection, support of self- governance, or public outreach. In partner-ships, libraries could avoid duplication of effort by sharing their electronic databases through an intertribal library computer network. Libraries might also consider becoming community in-formation and communication centers, especially in remote and economically depressed areas that lack adequate access to residential telephones. Native newspapers and newsletters could be strengthened through use of telecommunications 18 Posting on the MINN- IND (Minnesota Indian) list server, Mar. 4, 1995. To subscribe to MINN- IND, send an e- mail request to dborn@ ma-roon. tc. umn. edu. 19 Charles R. McClure, Waldo C. Babcock, Karen A. Nelson, et al., The Project GAIN Report: Connecting Rural Public Libraries to the Internet, project evaluation report prepared for NYSERNet, Inc., Feb. 15, 1994 (Manlius, NY: Information Management Consultant Services, Inc., 1994). 20 Ibid. p. 1. 21 Project Jukebox was a project of the Elmer R. Rasmuson Library at the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus. An early description with preliminary results is described in Steve Cisler (ed.), Apple Library of Tomorrow 1990 to 1992 (Cupertino, CA: Apple Library, 1993). 37 Chapter 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures 131 Without clicking on the acknowledge button "1 have read the release agreement, " a user of Project Jukebox (sample screen shown here) cannot listen to audio recordings of culturally sensitive oral histo-ries, or view and print photos and text from the transcript, The release agreement holds a user liable for any subsequent misuse of the information. Audio Cards -I have read the release agreement. Project Jukebox University of Alaska Fairbanks The Elmer E. Rasmuson Library Fairbanks, Alaska 99775- 1005 Oral History Gift and Release Agreement I, Howard Luke, of Chena Camp grant, convey, and transfer to the University of Alaska Archives and Manuscript Collections, an educational institution, all my right, title, interest, and literary property rights in and to the SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, based on material in Steve Cisler (ed.), Apple Library of Tomorrow 1990 to 1992 (Cupertino, CA. Apple Library, 1993), p 8 technology. About 300 newspapers and newslet- on the 26 tribal radio stations. It is co- sponsored ters, mostly small and very- low- budget, cover Na-tive cultural events, issues, and artists, and could benefit from intertribal electronic distribution of news and easy, affordable electronic access to cul-tural materials. Radio and TV stations (including cable TV) also can use satellite links to receive and send Native programming, and thus better serve Native communities. A leading example is the American Indian Radio on Satellite (AIROS) project designed to increase Native programming by the Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium and Indigenous Communications Association, with Corporation for Public Broad-casting funding. in sum, electronic technologies can strengthen the ability of Native artists, filmmakers, storytell-ers, and historians to produce cultural materials, and make it easier for cultural institutions serving Native Americans (e. g., museums, schools, li- 38 32 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges in Indian America we have two major information problems; others have little accurate information about us from our perspective, and we have poor access to reformation from others which could benefit us. "- James May (Cherokee) The U S National Commission on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS) conducted an exten-sive three- year study on challenges critical to the development of tribal Iibraries and information ser-vices for native Americans 1 More than 130 tribes and villages participated in hearings, site visits, and surveys The study addressed issues such as the role of new information technologies, the special problems of cultural and language preservation as oral traditions erode; and the role of Iibraries in all areas of Native Iife, especially to provide access to tools, technologies, literacy and basic job skills training, and resources to successfully enter the Information Age. Two of 10 challenges Identified by the Commission are to develop museum and archive technolo-gies and to encourage application of newer information network technologies. Ironically, tribal Iibraries are trying to preserve cultural traditions and wisdom of the past while forging new paths into the future The Commission found that "with a few exceptions Indian reservations are deplorably bereft of the equipment, expertise, and knowledge necessary to employ the new Iibrary and information technolo-gies ..." 2 Strategies put forth to address this problem Included n acquiring digital computing and telecommunications technology, n training native American Iibrarians, possibly through distance- learning activities with state library agencies and graduate schools, and n establishing intertribal networking, resource- sharing, and the development of special databases The Commission specifically recommended "that consideration should be given to a Iegislative ini-tiative to establish a National Native American Electronic Network enabling the tribes and villages to communicate, cooperate, and share information services and materials rapidly The Network should be designed to address the multiplicity of special library and information needs of Native Americans and have the capability to interface with other national library and reformation networks and databases "3 Tribal, state, and federal policy makers can learn from initiatives such as Alaska's Statewide Library Electronic Doorway (SLED) SLED IS providing Internet access to every public Iibrary in Alaska More-over, SLED computer servers wiII provide electronic databases such as library and government refer-ence materials As remarked by Steve Smith, one of the creators of SLED, Iibraries do not want to be-come "custodians of book warehouses "4 This feeling IS shared by Native Americans in the wake of the federal policy of self- determination, tribes are finding that the tribal library is assuming increasingly im-portant roles as both an archive and an up- to- date information source for culture, education, business, law, governance and tribal policy 1 U S National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, Pathways to Excellence: A Report on Improving Library and Informaflon Services for Native American Peoples (Washington, DC December 1992) 2 Ibid, p 20 3 Ibid, p 14 4 Lee Dye Alaskans To Use SLED on Information Highway, " Los Angeles Times, July 5, 1994, p 5 SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1995 39 Chapter 2 TelecommunicationsTechnology and Native American Cultures | 33 Left: Little Big Horn College at the Crow Indian Reservation, in Crow Agency Montana. Tribal colleges typically provide library and information services as well as education for the local Indian community Right: The Iibrary at the Little Big Horn College is full of books, periodicals, and electronic media- including the CD- ROM station shown here. braries, the media) to reach more people more ef-fectively. Native museums can use computer net-working and videoconferencing, for example, both to improve communication and collabora-tion among themselves, and to form partnerships with schools, libraries, and radio stations. The portability of electronic cultural materials, wheth-er on diskette or CD- ROM or transmitted online, increases their potential reach, not only to Native Americans living on or near Native communities, but to those who live in the major metropolitan areas. Two major caveats are in order. First, most Na-tive communities are short on technical expertise and financial resources. Local schools, museums, and libraries will need training, technical support, and funding for equipment and telecommunica- tions access, as well as local leadership, if the po-tential is to be realized. Second, some Native cul-tural material may be sensitive and not suitable for electronic dissemination, such ascertain religious rites or ceremonies. Many songs and dances are tied to spirituality. Their sanctity derives from the real- life performance within a defined context such as at a sacred site or with certain spiritual leaders. When taken out of context (displayed on a computer terminal, for example), or if altered (by using computer software), sacred songs and dances could be considered disrespectful or irrev-erent. Policies for defining and protecting Native cultural privacy and integrity in an electronic en-vironment need to be established by the Native tribes, villages, and communities that are the orig-inal source of the cultural material. 40 34 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges BROADENING PUBLIC AWARENESS OF NATIVE CULTURES Several national or regional museums specialize, or have a major subfocus, on Native cultures. These include the Smithsonian Institution's Na-tional Museum of the American Indian 22 (NMAI) in Washington, DC and New York City; Heard Museum in Phoenix; Southwest Museum in Los Angeles; and Bishop Museum in Honolulu. The museum administrators and curators are begin-ning to visualize electronic technologies as an im-portant complement to the traditional means of conveying culture and an effective way to extend access to museum displays, exhibits, and pro-grams far beyond the physical structures. The NMAI is in the beginning stages of creat-ing the Fourth Museum (so- called because it is the fourth of four planned NMAI facilities). The Fourth Museum is considering prerecorded au-diotapes and videotapes, videoconferencing, computer networking, electronic databases, and interactive multimedia to disseminate Native pro-gramming and to put the museum's collections and cultural programs online. A secondary goal is to raise public awareness of the status of the other three NMAI facilities. Currently, an exhibit is open at the U. S. Customs House in downtown New York City. A Cultural Resource Center in Maryland is scheduled to be completed in 1997, and a Mall Museum near the National Air and Space Museum is scheduled for completion in 2001. Some skeptics, pointing to a lack of basic telecommunications on many reservations, scoff at the notion that the Fourth Museum will reach and benefit many Native Americans. Programs produced by Native Americans com-bined with new electronic outlets could, over time, provide a better balance to the conventional U. S. textbook, film, and news media treatment of Native American cultures and history. 23 Past me-dia coverage, especially of American history, is generally regarded as having been seriously in-complete and inaccurate (although some note a re-cently improving trend). New technologies and declining costs present opportunities for Native Americans to originate more material of high quality, accuracy, and authenticity and to distrib-ute that material locally and nationally. 24 Ameri-can Indian TV is but one example of local Native programming (see box 2- 8). Although such pro-gramming has rarely been distributed by mass me-dia outlets, this may be changing as evidenced by shifting viewer preferences 25 and a new Native American radio talk show. 26 As a consequence, the major production companies, media outlets, and cultural institutions may take more notice. Technology- based cultural awareness opportu-nities include the use of Native electronic cultural materials (especially software, videos, and films) to support U. S. history and culture courses at the K- 12 and college levels, in public libraries, and in areas of the country that do not have significant concentrations of Native Americans. Also, Na-tive- produced audio programming could be 22 The NMAI was established by the National Museum of the American Indian Act, Public Law 101- 185, Nov. 28, 1989. 23 See, e. g., Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., The White Man's Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1978). 24 One catalog indexes and describes more than 175 Native American programs produced for public television and available on videotape to public television stations, schools, libraries, and educational users. Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium, Catalog of Program-ming 1993- 94 (Lincoln, NE: 1994). 25 In 1993, cable entrepreneur Ted Turner launched a year- long series of shows about Native Americans, including several movies, a six-hour documentary series, and a 20- part series of reports. Richard Zoglin, "Ted Turner Goes Native," Time, vol. 142, No. 24, Dec. 6, 1993, pp. 86- 87. 26 Native America Calling, coproduced by the Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium and the Alaska Public Radio Network, will be the first nationally distributed, live call- in radio talk show. It will be distributed by the AIROS satellite network and is scheduled to pre-miere in June 1995. 41 Chapter 2 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Cultures | 35 played on commercial and public radio stations in the major media markets. And Native- produced video programming could be used on cable and public television stations. Cable is well suited be-cause of the large number of channels, including public and educational access channels, offered in the medium to large markets. Interactive multimedia centers, or kiosks, have a significant future role. A Native American inter-active multimedia center or room could be added at museums that do not otherwise have a signifi-cant Native American exhibition or collection. A Native American interactive interpretative kiosk might be tried at selected national parks, monu-ments, historic sites, and perhaps other federal (and state) locations that have Native cultural or historic significance. These kiosks could use Na-tive- produced multimedia and videos. Computer networking is now being used by Native Americans, researchers, and the general public to discuss Native cultural topics and issues. Electronic mail, electronic "chat" sessions or con-ferences, electronic bulletin boards, and the elec-tronic distribution of Native cultural materials and programming are all in use. Native American dis-cussion groups are included on the major com-mercial and public computer conferencing net-works. The several Native American electronic bulletin boards and electronic information offer-ings should soon be referenced in federal and li-brary directories. About 75 electronic bulletin boards are Native American owned/ operated and pertain to Native American issues (see appendix A for a partial listing). A current threat to the promotion and develop-ment of Native American culture, spirituality, and values on computer networks is ethnic fraudP non- Native Americans posing as elders, shamans, medicine men/ women, and the like. Although these imposters are eventually discovered, they frequently perpetrate cultural libelP putting forth misinformation on sensitive cultural ideas and valuesP for many months and then can easily reappear under a new online name. Today, there is no effective legal recourse for libel in public fo-rums on computer networks. Some public com-puter network forums may have to be regulated and/ or mediated to better protect and serve the cul-tural interests of Native Americans. One could en-vision three classes of computer discussionsP private, regulated/ mediated, and publicP to serve the different needs of Native Americans, includ-ing privacy, protection against fraud, and free speech (this is also true for the majority society). DEVELOPING A NATIVE CULTURAL EMPOWERMENT STRATEGY The Native American community faces a dilem-ma. On the one hand, several key trends are com-ing together to present new opportunities for Na-tive American cultural empowerment: 1) the shift in federal policy that now encourages the reaf-firmation and strengthening of Native culture rather than its repression, 2) the resurgence in grassroots Native interest in cultural history and activities, and 3) the considerable potential of tele-communications. On the other hand, developing overall strategies is difficult, in part because of the cultural diversity of Native Americans and the fragmentation of activities and funding sources. The absence of an overall strategy becomes more critical, however, in times of fiscal austerity. The basis for cultural empowerment might in-clude cultural property rights and legal protec-tions, such as those provided by NAGPRA and the Indian Arts and Crafts Act (IACA) of 1990, 27 and emerging Native policies for copyright, security, and privacy of Native information. The IACA is intended to promote commerce and reduce coun-terfeiting and deceptive marketing practices by imposing large penalitiesP up to $250,000 and five years of incarceration for a first offenseP to 27 An online open forum for discussion of Indian law and policy is the "triballaw" list server. To subscribe, send an e- mail message to LIST-SERV@ thecity. sfsu. edu. In the body of the message, type the following: subscribe triballaw . 42 36 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges "I am here for a purpose, and that purpose is to continue on to be my grandmother's messenger, to disseminate pieces of our culture. That is what my grandmother told me to do. She would often tell me, 'Please let the greater world outside know what is going on here- of who we are and where we come from. . . " 1 --- Ray Young Bear (Mesquakie) American Indian IV (AITV) is a monthly half- hour program distributed in southern California to about 2.25 million cable subscribers, including about 100,000 Native Americans in the metropolitan Los An-geles area. The program goals are to dispel myths and negative images about Indians by showcasing Indians in contemporary settings lndian rappers, opera singers, attorneys, surgeons, ballet dancers, and skateboard champions and to build Indian community and outreach The program IS largely the effort of one man, Don Thornton (Cherokee), who may spend as much as 80 hours a week for the "sheer joy of producing a show he believes in " The program began as a simple community access health show funded by a grant from the Indian Health Service. The American Indian Clinic provides a small production studio. AITV is currently search-ing for ways to expand to a broadcast UHF or VHF channel and to produce the show weekly. To date, AITV has archived 90 hours of programming for a year and a half of work, and has traveled to a dozen states. A monthly newsletter with a calendar of events and viewing times currently reaches 2,000 homes, Using an upbeat format, the program highlights community issues and promotes Indian performers, leaders, role models, and organizations, It has featured national Indian leaders such as Wilma Mankiller, Chief of the Cherokee Nation; Oren Lyons, Chief of the Onondaga Nation, and Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell of Colorado. The program also features Indian entertainers such as Wes Studi, Floyd "Red Crow" Westerman, and Gary Farmer. Despite a shoestring budget, AITV has managed to line up non-Indian celebrities such as Arnold Schwartzenegger, Steven Seagal, Jay Leno, Robert Duvall, and Paul McCartney in connection with Indian- specific events and issues. in a humorous way, each show awards a dubious honor to those who have gone out of their way to offend the Indian community the "Custer-Had- It- Coming- Award !" SOURCE. Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, based on information from materials provided by Don Thornton, producer, AITV April 1995 1 David Moore and Michael Wilson, "Staying Afloat in a Chaotic World A Conversation with Ray Young Bear," Calla-loo, vol. 17, No. 1, winter 1994, pp. 205- 208. those who knowingly violate the prohibition. 28 strengthening of bonds with blood relatives. in Protection and enforcement of such policies are formation systems that trace genealogies can help difficult for online information, however, and individuals to verify ancestry, establish tribal or some Native Americans may choose not to put Alaska village membership, strengthen knowl-sensitive cultural material into electronic formats. edge of their- cultural roots, identify relatives, and/ Cultural empowerment might also include po- or create or renew feelings of belonging and pur-licies that encourage the identification and pose. Policies for the development and use of 28 For further discussion, see Jack Utter, American Indians: Answers to Today's Questions (Lake Ann, MI: National woodlands Publishing Company, 1993). pp. 81- 82. 43 Chapter 2 TelecommunicationsTechnology and Native American Cultures 137 genealogical information systems might include decisions on which records could be put into elec-tronic form, and on controlled access to records to ensure the appropriate amount of confidentiality -and privacy. In Hawaii, art interagency task force comprised of representatives from the Department of Health, the State Archives, the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, and the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands ad-dressed the issue of Hawaiian genealogy. 29 It dis-covered a large demand for genealogical services and developed a plan for the Hawaiian Genealogy Project with input from interested individuals and organizations. The plan made recommendations for legislation as well as administration and fund-ing. The project will include the online Hawaii Population Database (developed by the Genetics Department of the University of Hawaii), which contains primary records (birth, death, and mar-riage) collected from 1841 to the present, and sec-ondary records such as the 1900 and 1910 Federal Census files. Other potential secondary sources include documents at the State Archives, libraries, courts, and the Bishop Museum. The task force recommended that information and assistance be centralized at one- stop centers located on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii, and that elec-tronic information be shared through telecommu-nications linkages. The project was to have been fully functional by 1995, but is less than one- quar-ter complete due to a lack of funding. The federal role in recent years has been to sup-port Native language 30 renewal and cultural de-velopment. Financial support, however, is modest and spread among several federal agencies and programs. These include, for example, the Ad- Top: In Alaska, most colleges serving Native communities are part of the University of Alaska system. Chukchi College serves Kotzebue and other Eskimo villages in remote north-west Alaska. The Kotzebue public library is collocated with Chukchi College. Bottom: The Kotzebue public Iibrary has a small collection of books and periodicals along with a CD-ROM station and online computer terminal that are available to the local community ministration for Native Americans * in the De-partment of Health and Human Services, Bureau of Indian Affairs (Department of the Interior), Na-tional Park Service (Department of the Interior), 29 Hawaiian Genealogy Project Master Plan (Honolulu, HI: State of Hawaii Interagency Task Force, 1991). 30 On October 30, 1990, the Native American Languages Act, Title I of Public Law 101- 477, declared federal policy "to preserve, protect, and promote the rights and freedoms of Native Americans to use, practice and develop Native American languages," as cited in Utter, op. cit.. footnote 28, p. 84. 31 "On Oct. 26, 1992, President Bush signed into law a legislative measure that will help counter the loss of Native languages. It authorizes the Administration formative Americans to make grants to tribal governments and other groups to teach children, train educators and interpret-ers, and compile histories, develop teaching materials, and acquire equipment for language lessons" (Indian Country Today, Nov. 5, 1992), as cited in Utter, op. cit., footnote 28, p. 83. 44 38 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Department of Education (various programs), Na-tional Museum of the American Indian (The Smithsonian Institution), National Endowment for the Arts, and Corporation for Public Broad-casting. Total funding appears to be a few million dollars per year (excluding the NMAI construc-tion costs), of which a significant part supports telecommunications- related activities. Because Native cultural programs are spread among several agencies and lack an overarching strategic plan or concept, an unintended conse-quence of overall federal budget cuts could be to effectively dismantle some or all of these initia-tives. The Administration for Native Americans had concluded, in 1994, that Native cultural acti-vities were underfunded. 32 Budget increases ap-pear impractical in today's fiscal environment. But some Native leaders and cultural activists are urging consideration of new ways to preserve cur-rent funding or forestall disproportionate cuts. Advocates believe that, while Native culture is the primary responsibility of each individual tribe, village, and community, the federal trust responsi-bility appropriately extends to providing some modicum of financial supportP especially in light of many decades of federal efforts to undermine Native cultures. National tribal leaders, together with American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian cul-tural leaders, could work with a designated federal agency, perhaps the Administration for Native Americans, to inventory and disseminate online all current federal programs for Native American cultural activities, and develop both funding and administrative options. Moreover, they could work on further developing policy on cultural property rights. The result could be an overall strategy that would focus attention on Native American cultural empowerment and coordinate efforts to make best use of scarce financial re-sources. 32 Administration for Native Americans officials, personal communication, Nov. 18, 1994. 45 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building he community is a core value and basic institution of Na-tive American cultures and societies. Until the last several decades, federal policy had the effect of dispersing, weak-ening, or dismantling Native communities. The health and well- being of Native Americans suffered as a result. Federal policy now encourages community- building and empowerment, but many Native communities face major socioeconomic chal-lengesP including high unemployment and poverty, physical isolation, poor health, and diminishment or loss of cultural identi-ty. Telecommunications technologies can make significant con-tributions to the well- being of Native communities in the areas of education, health care, economic development, environmental protection, and governance. The technology can help strengthen community- building efforts within and between rural Native communities, and make it easier to share the lessons learned. One can envision the use of videoconferencing, computer networking, multimedia, and wireless links on many Indian reservations and in many Native villages and communities in ways that are both acceptable and adaptable to their cultures. Several Native Ameri-can communities have already recognized the potential and are in various stages of planning and implementing some of the first Na-tive American telecommunications pilot projects. Others have begun forming telecommunications committees to plan for future community- wide infrastructure and policy. To realize the full potential of telecommunications, however, major hurdles must be overcome. Many Native areas have limited or no telecommunications infrastructure, and lack the leadership, knowledge, training, and funding needed to take advantage of these technological opportunities. And federal policies de- |39 46 40 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges signed for the majority society may inadvertently overlook distressed rural Native American com-munities. These communities will need to consid-er the creation of publicly accessible telecommu-nications centers and community networks, enabling them to share costs and resources and gain community- wide acceptance. TECHNOLOGIES AND INFRASTRUCTURE FOR COMMUNITY- BUILDING z Key Technologies Key technologies discussed here include video-conferencing, computer networking, multimedia, and wireless links. It should be noted that more complex technologies are built from combina-tions and variations of simpler technologies. When technologies are combined in an applica-tion (to solve everyday social problems), they form a system. Examples include public electronic kiosks used for information dissemination or elec-tronic benefits transfer, and computer information systems, such as a Geographic Information Sys-tem (GIS), that use specialized software, comput-ers, and databases. Videoconferencing (also called interactive vid-eo) includes both one- way and two- way com-pressed or full- motion video and two- way audio. The fully interactive approach uses both two- way audio and two- way video, while one- way video combines a single video channelP usually from the speaker to a remote audienceP with a regular telephone or speaker phone circuit or the equiva-lent. Videoconferencing has been in active use for about 15 years. Applications include business conferencing, distance education, and telemedi-cine. The costs of studio equipment (e. g., cameras and monitors) and transmission equipment (e. g., for uplinks and downlinks on satellites, or land-line circuits) are dropping. Desktop videoconfer-encing uses personal computers or videophones for videoconferences among individuals or small groups. Computer networking involves the transmis-sion of messages, mail, images, and other in-formation in electronic digital form between com-puters, regardless of location, connected by a telecommunications link. Computer networking began about 25 years ago in the days of time-shared mainframe computers, and took a grass-roots, user- oriented turn about 15 years ago with the advent of the relatively inexpensive micro-computer. Computer networking includes elec-tronic bulletin boards, computer conferencing, list servers (computers that send messages on speci-fied topics to subscribers signed on to the list), and so- called file servers (computers with remotely accessible files of information)P many of which can be accessed on a dial- up basis rather than through a dedicated link. Computer networks come in all sizes. They span buildings, towns, regions, and countries. Lo-cal area networks (LANs), the smallest, are gener-ally located within one building. Computers joined over long distances are called wide area networks (WANs). LANs and WANs can be con-nected to form internetworks. The largest internet-work today, spanning the globe, is the Internet (see box 2- 4). Computer networking, technolo-gies, and users have matured to the point where many private companies are viewing networking as a major business tool and emerging consumer marketP well beyond the scientific and research communities that fostered the first computer net-works. Computer software applications manipulate a variety of formats such as numbers (e. g., spread-sheets), words (e. g., word- processing), pictures, sounds, and video. Multimedia is the integration of all these formats in one software application. 1 The user can interact with multimedia programs in flexible ways, for example, by cutting and pasting 1 Discussions on hypertext markup language (html)P the language of multimedia home pages on World Wide Web sites (a type of computer file server on the Internet)P are provided in Gary Welz, "New Dimensions: A Multimedia Revolution Is Unfolding on the Net," Internet World, March 1995, pp. 31- 33, 36; and Mathew Gray and Eric Richard, "Make Multimedia Friendly," Internet World, March 1995, pp. 26- 28. 47 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building together pieces of songs and video clips to create new works. Multimedia applications require mi-crocomputers with special audio and video cards, software called a "viewer" or "player," 2 and . enough memory to store the multimedia files to be viewed. Microcomputers increasingly use compact disk- read only memories (CD- ROMs) and in-clude an internal CD- ROM reader to accommo-date large and/ or numerous text, image, or multi-media files. CD- ROMs are based on the same technology as compact disks (CDs), used for mu-sic, and videodisks, used for movies. Each CD-ROM, a thin 4.75- inch- diameter disk, can hold about 200,000 pages of text, an hour of audio, or a few minutes of video. Other high- density memory options, in various electronic, magnetic, and opti-cal formats, are being developed and market-tested. Wireless technologies span a wide frequency range- from the low frequencies used for AM ra-dio to the high frequencies used for satellite and microwave communication. Radio and television broadcasting has been providing Americans with entertainment, education, and information for de-cades. Satellites have long been used to span the continent and link countries for transmitting phone calls, television programs, and data. Micro-wave links are used by telephone companies to carry phone calls, and by private companies and public utilities to monitor and manage gas pipe-lines, railroads, and the electric grid. Today, the number of wireless applications and markets is exploding as more technologies are de-veloped for the business and consumer markets. Advances in digital technology (replacing older analog techniques), coupled with new markets, have resulted in lower costs and greater access/ use by individuals and small businesses. For example, I 41 lop: Radio station KOTZ serving the Eskimo village of Kotze-bue, Alaska. The station originates some programming Iocally and retransmits national programming picked up from satel-Iite feeds. Bottom: Radio station KEYA serving the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation, Be/ court, North Dakota. Tribal radio stations play a vital role in providing culturally sensitive educational, entertainmant, and news programs. the 26 Native radio stations can use a satellite link to receive Native programming through the American Indian Radio on Satellite (AIROS) project. AIROS subleases a satellite channel from the National Public Radio satellite system. Cellu-lar phones and paging services are adding thou-sands of users each day; computer companies are developing low- power, short- link wireless net-2 For a discussion on file formats, viewers, and players for still- video (image), motion- video, and audio files, see Richard W. Wiggins, ''Files Come in Flavors: Finding and Using Viewers and Players," Internet World, March 1995, pp. 52- 53,55- 56. 3 For discussions of wireless technologies and their role within the larger context of the National Information Infrastructure, see U. S. Con-gress, Office of Technology Assessment, Wireless Technologies and the National Information Infrastructure, in progress. 48 42 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges works using frequencies that do not require a li-cense; and personal communication services will soon allow people to make and receive phone calls from almost any point on the globe. z Systems Videoconferencing, computer networking, multi-media, and wireless are generic technologies that can be considered at both the technical and general applications levels. As a rule, the technology base of modern telecommunications and computers in-cludes microfabricated semiconductor electron-ics, or "chips"; digital communications; and elec-tro- optics such as fiber optics and lasers. Scientists and engineers are most concerned with the technical descriptions of technology that are based on engineering, materials science, and physics. Policymakers, business people, and the public are more interested in general descriptions and applications, not the technical detail. When specific technologies are combined in an application, they form a system. In health care, common systems might include telemedicine, community health information networks, or clini-cal information systems; and in education, dis-tance learning and interactive multimedia training are examples. Other systems include telecommut-ing, telemarketing, televillages, electronic de-mocracy, personal communication systems, vid-eo- on- demand, and groupware. At the systems level, design principles extend beyond the purely technical aspects to include human preferences and work habits, as well as plans for manufactur-ing, marketing, installation, and operation. The "information system" is a generic term for a combination of one or more electronic databases and software to manipulate the information from the database. Information systems may be in- cluded in networks of computers or simply in stand- alone computers. The hundreds of different types of information systems include, for exam-ple, executive information systems, clinical in-formation systems, online library card catalogs, and accounting systems. 4 Service agencies, in particular, use information systems to track multi-ple services provided to each client for as long as a lifetime. Some large commercial information sys-tems include airline computer reservation sys-tems, automated teller machines, and real estate multiple- listing services. Electronic kiosks are essentially microcomput-ers with user- friendly multimedia software. They are usually located in public places such as li-braries, supermarkets, and community centers. Most kiosks tested or in use provide a range of in-formation about federal, state, and/ or local gov-ernment services. Some have limited transaction-al capability, such as issuing a receipt or short printed document, accepting a credit card pay-ment, or renewing a driver's license. Future kiosks may offer a wide range of informational and transactional services. Several federal, state, and local government agencies are pilot- testing various applications with the intent of eventually using kiosks to deliver many government services electronically. 5 Electronic benefits transfer (EBT) is the use of cards similar to credit or debit cards to qualify for and receive various government benefits. Several federal and state agencies are pilot- testing and, in some cases, operating EBT systems for the deliv-ery of welfare benefits, food stamps, unemploy-ment compensation, social security payments, and/ or child and maternal health support (e. g., the federal Women, Infants, and Children program). EBT might also be used to provide eligible recipi-ents with credit for education and training pro-4 For a discussion of library information systems, see U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Informing the Nation: Federal In-formation Dissemination in an Electronic Age, OTA- CIT- 396 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, October 1988); and for a discussion of scientific and technical information systems, see U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Helping America Compete: The Role of Federal Scientific and Technical Information, OTA- CIT- 454 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, July 1990). 5 For further discussion, see U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Making Government Work: Electronic Delivery of Federal Services, OTA- TCT- 578 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, September 1993). 49 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building | 43 grams, issue health insurance reimbursements, and disburse government grants and contracts, among other services. The current Administration has announced the goal of implementing nation-wide EBT to deliver federal benefits within five years. 6 One system that is important to many Native American tribes and villages is the Geographic In-formation System. GISs integrate several types of hardware, software, and electronic databases, and are used for a wide variety of geographic informa-tion- dependent purposes such as land and natural resource management, demographic modeling, business marketing, and environmental research. Each GIS can be configured to best accomplish a unique set of goals, usually using a specialized da-tabase. The major commercial GISs are now con-verging and are widely applicable to Native American communities. z Telecommunications Infrastructure Potentially large cost- savings could be realized by organizing telecommunications technologies around a community telecommunications center such as a school, library, tribal office, health clin-ic, or multiservice center. The requisite technolo-gies would be collocated at one or a few centrally accessible community centers, rather than in homes and offices. Such centers could form part of a two- tier technology infrastructure in which a basic low- bandwidth 7 level of telecommunica-tions service is provided to homes and perhaps of-fices (e. g., telephone, 8 dial- in capability with mo-dem to electronic bulletin boards, and cable, broadcast, or satellite TV/ radio), and a more ad- vanced medium- bandwidth level is provided to selected community centers (e. g., computer net-working, including access to online information databases, using higher speed modems or direct connections). An even more advanced high- band-width level and range of services might be defined for major medical centers, colleges, or businesses; or for geographically centralized Native busi-nesses where additional economies of scale may apply, such as a Native business park, incubator, or enterprise zone. The telecommunications infrastructure needed to provide a basic level of service to Native Amer-ican homes will vary depending on geographic, demand, and market considerations. Some of the most remote areas will require wireless technolo-gies. For example, most Alaska Native villages depend on satellite- based delivery because the vil-lages are out of reach of cellular radio or broadcast (except satellite- linked). In the villages, small ru-ral telephone and cable (and some local radio) companies serve the so- called last mile. Many Native Hawaiian rural communities, by comparison, are linked (or could be linked) by both telephone and cable landlines (provided by large telephone and cable companies or their sub-sidiaries), with microwave and fiberoptic cable for inter- island hops and satellite links or undersea cable to the mainland. Most of these communities are within current or potential range of broadcast and cellular radio. American Indian reservations vary in their de-gree of similarity to remote Alaskan villages and rural Hawaiian communities. Some reservations are within a few miles of major transcontinental 6 Ibid. 7 The term bandwidth is a technical word indicating the amount of data, audio, or video information traveling through a conduit in a given time. Fiberoptic cables can carry data at bandwidths a million times larger than copper wire twisted- pairs used for most telephone lines. While the transmission medium has an inherent upper- bandwidth limit, other system componentsP such as terminal equipment that sends or receives the data, known as modems (modulator- demodulators)P may create bottlenecks in the transmission system. 8 According to a May- June 1992 poll of seven areas served by Native American public radio stations, telephone penetration was very low. The percentages of households with a telephone were as follows: KIDE, Hoopa, CA (70 percent); KSHI, Zuni, NM (63 percent); WOJB, Hay-ward, WI (55 percent); KSUT, Ignacio, CO (54 percent); KNNB, Whiteriver, AZ (51 percent); KTDB, Pine Hill, NM (39 percent); and KABR, Alamo, NM (26 percent). Who Listens to Native American Public Radio, prepared by Dr. E. B. Eiselein for the CPB Native American Listening Data Project (Kalispell, MT: A & A Research, 1992). 50 44 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges telephone trunk lines, while others depend on ru-ral telephone and cable companies for minimal service. Many Native Americans living in rural areas still do not have basic telephone service be-cause it is too expensive or unavailable. Only four tribes own and operate telephone companies, and a few are considering or are in the process of buy-ing exchanges. There are about 26 tribal radio sta-tions and the number is increasing (see box 3- 1 and table 3- 1). About 12 tribes own and operate broadcast or cable TV companies (see box 3- 2). At a more aggregated market level, community communication centers could be located in com-munity colleges, high schools, libraries, hospitals or clinics, and tribal/ village government offices. The smallest Native communities may be able to justify only one or two centers, most likely located at an educational and/ or health care facility. Larg-er communities may be able to set up a "communi-ty network" 9 that links the various schools, health clinics, multiservice centers, tribal offices, and the like. The key is to aggregate demand to make the communication centers or community networks as cost- effective and affordable as possible. Opportunities to apply key technologies and systems in Native American communities exist in education and research, health care, economic de-velopment, environmental protection, and gover-nance. EDUCATION AND RESEARCH Educators, researchers, and educational adminis-trators are learning and developing new concepts for telecommunications- based education sys- tems, including telecourses via videoconference or radio/ television broadcast, CD- ROM data-bases, online databases, interactive multimedia training, software applications such as computer art and desktop publishing, electronic student re-cords, and school/ campus information systems. 10 The key technologiesP videoconferencing, com-puter networking, multimedia, and wireless linksP underlie these systems. While some of these systems (e. g., electronic student records and college/ university information systems) have been widely deployed throughout the United States, others (e. g., telecourses and interactive multimedia training) are still under development and/ or unaffordable. Pilot projects are testing their effectiveness and efficiency and gauging their af-fordibility. Native American education profes-sionals will want to do the sameP based on their own criteria for effectiveness, efficiency, and af-fordability. z Videoconferencing Videoconferencing could be used for distance learning for K- 12, university, vocational, trade, and adult education. 11 Schools in smaller tribes, villages, and communities rarely have the critical mass of students, let alone the resources, to offer a full range of courses. Videoconferencing could be used to supplement onsite offerings and help diversify the curriculum, and as a vehicle for con-tinuing teacher education. The American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) has these goals, among others, in mind for tribal colleges 9 Sources of information about community networking include the National Public Telecomputing Network, Moreland Hill, OH, info@ nptn. org; Center for Civic Networking, Washington, DC, rciville@ civicnet. org; and The Morino Institute, Reston, VA, info@ morino. org. The Morino Institute also has a comprehensive inventory of public- access networks at their World Wide Web site, http:// www. morino. org/. 10 For general discussions of telecommunications and other technologies for education, see U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess-ment, Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education, OTA- SET- 430 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, November 1989); and U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Teachers and Technology, OTA- EHR- 616 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, April 1995). 11 One distance- learning electronic mailing list is DEOS- L, the Distance Education Online Symposium (The Pennsylvania State Universi-ty). To subscribe, send an e- mail message to listserv@ psuvm. psu. edu. Also, Usenet News has the alt. education. distance newsgroup. 51 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building 145 in the Sioux language, radio is described as words that fly through the air "- Frank Blythe Today, there are 11,767 radio stations in the United States) 1 with 93 offering regular native programming (typically one to three hours per week). 2 But "Native Radio" is considered to be the 25 to 30 predominantly Native- owned and -operated stations, only four of which are commercial, whose primary mission is to deliv-er native programming- largely local news, Native- relevant Information, Native- language programming, and Native- produced music, information, talk shows, and news. Since the first Native Radio station began broadcasting in 1971, Native Radio has slowly but steadily grown in Indian Country (see table 3- 1). Why did it take so long? Largely, Indian tribes were uninformed, discouraged, and battling unemployment and poverty. Most Native stations required startup funds from state or federal grants, as well as technical assistance and Institutions for training managers, broadcast-ers, and programmers. Lastly, the stations needed ongoing funding for operations and development of Na-tive programming. They had Iittle experience in any of these areas. Today, however, the situation has changed. native stations have learned the business. They are sup-ported by volunteers, fund drives, underwriting by corporations and foundations, federal grants, and train-ing programs set up in local schools. Operating costs, Including salaries, are frequently paid by school boards or tribal councils. The Institution of "Native Radio" has gone national with the formation of the indig-enous Communications Association (lCA) and the ability to deliver Native programming nationwide through the American Indian Radio on Satellite (AIROS) project a joint effort of ICA and the Native American Pub-lic Broadcasting Consortium (NAPBC), Native programming is further supported by the NAPBC and Pacific Islanders in Communication, in turn supported by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) There IS now a pipeline of up- and- coming young native radio managers, broadcasters, technicians, and programmers. Six more stations wiII begin broadcasting within a year The experiences of once Isolated radio stations are now being shared through the ICA. The future, however, is still uncertain Most stations feel they are barely surviving. The problems are not changing lack of money, Inadequate staffing and train-ing, 3 lack of Native- language skills, lack of native programming, tribal interference, poor facilities and equipment, and in some cases, competition. "Lack of money" is an understatement. Most of these stations serve some of the most Isolated areas of the country where poverty is the rule, in 1971, the Navajo Pine HiII (station KTDB) community had only a 2 percent telephone penetration rate and, because of the lack of electricity, KTDB distributed 500 portable radios. Electricity just came to the Navajo Alamo reservation (sta-tion KABR) in 1982 and telephones in 1986. Despite the problems, native visionaries are planning for the future, With help from ICA, stations are finding new ways to raise money, especially from tribal governments, and are applying for more grants The ICA Itself, with the expiration of supporting grants from CPB, must find new support to survive What little native programming that does exist is now widely available through NAPBC's library. Stations are striving to upgrade facilities to Implement new Digital Audio Broadcasting and Tape (DAB and DAT) technology, as well as to install dishes to receive broadcasts through AIROS (currently 15 stations have dishes). native broadcasters are questioning their role in the National Information Infrastructure (Nil). While radio broadcast is generally overlooked in the Nll debate, it is very Important for rural reservations, espe-cially those areas without phones or electricity or access to any other information source. SOURCES Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1995, with information from Michael C Keith, Signals in the Air: Native Broadcasting in America (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1995), and Michael C Keith, Communication Department, Boston College, Boston MA, personal communications, February 1995 1 Broadcasting and Cab/ e, Mar 6, 1995, p 73 2 A total of 93 stations reported offering Native programming in 1992 Broadcasting and Cab/ e Yearbook (New Provi-dence NJ: R. R. Bowker, 1994), p B575 3 The Alaska Public Radio Network's Indigenous Broadcast Center IS the only national training center specifically for Native Americans 52 46 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges First aired Location Power Population Language Supporters Station 1971 1972 1973 1975 1975 1975 1976 1978 1978 1980 1981 1982 1982 1983 1983 1983 1984 1990 1990 Bethel, AK Pine Hill, NM Kotzebue, AK Belcourt, ND (Nushagak Bay) AK Barrow, AK 4,500 2,000 Yup'ik Navajo Inupiaq Etwaychik Yup'ik Inupiaq State, CPB School Board Village Tribe School Board Local, state, CPB, DoC- NTIA, Corp. Tribe, College Owned by Catholic Mission Tribe, CPB Tribe, DoC- NTIA KYUK KTDB KOTZ KEYA KDLG KBRW 10 KW 19 KW 10 KW 10 KW 10,000 Ignacio, CO (Rosebud) SD 450 W 57 KW 2,300+ Ute Lakota KSUT KINI 10,000 1,800+ 5,000 3,800 11,000 37,400 3,000 1,300 Zuni Hoopa -None-Ojibwe Apache Lakota Mandan Navajo KSHI* KIDE* KSKO# WOJB KNNB KILI KMHA KABR Zuni, NM Hoopa, CA McGrath, AK Hayward, WI Whiteriver, AZ Porcupine, SD New Town, ND Alamo, NM 100 W 195 W 10 KW 100 KW 630 W 100 KW 100 KW Low Tribe Tribe, HUD, DoC- NTIA Tribe School Board, DoC- NTIA, DoED- OIE Some Advertising, Canada 350 w Mohawk CKON (Akwesasne) NY 100 w 100 w 10 w Apache Navajo Cup'ik KCIE KGHR KCUK Dulce, NM Tuba City, AZ Chevak, AK School Board, DoC- NTIA School Board, State, Fed. 16,000 KDLG repeater stations: KSDP Sandpoint, AK KIAL Unalaska- Dutch Harbor, AK KUHB Saint Paul- Pribilof Islands, AK KNSA Unalakleet, AK Other repeaters or translators: KBRW reported having 5 translators via satellite. KSUT reported having 6 translators. KSKO reported 2 repeaters.  NOTES A "repeater" rebroadcasts a signal at the same frequency, while a "translator" rebroadcasts at a different frequency Language refers to any amount of Native language programming Supporters IS an Incomplete Iist and does not imply amount or type of support () Names in parenthesis are reservations Only radio in region # KSKO may alternate majority control of its governing body from Native to Anglo ^ KGHR IS owned by the high school board and operated by high school students (It IS a National Public Radio repeater station from KNAU in Flagstaff, AZ ) DoC- NTIA U S Department of Commerce, National Telecommunications and Information Administration (Public Telecommunications Facili-ties Program) CPB Corporation for Public Broadcasting HUD U S Department of Housing and Urban Development DoED- OIE U S Department of Education, Off Ice of Indian Education Corp. Specifically Shell 011, ARCO, and BP Exploration Fed Unspecified federal grant SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, with Information from Michael C Keith, Signals in the Air: Native Broadcasting in America (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1995); E. B. Eiselein, Who Listens to native American PUbliC Radio?, Report of the C! PB Native American Listening Data Project (Kalispell, MT: A& A Research, June 1992), and Michael C Keith, Communication Depart-ment, Boston College, Boston, MA, personal communications, February 1995 53 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building 147 While Native radio has hobbled along since 1971 (see box 3- l), Native television is virtually nonex-istent. The primary barrier to participation is high costs, but lack of experience and training is also a problem Some Native Americans are also wary of television's potential to culturally assimilate and erode Native values. This fear is lessened when stations are Native- owned and broadcast some mea-sure of native programming Michael C Keith, in the course of his research on native broadcasting, identified only a few native owned and -operated TV and cable stations. As sketched below, these stations (and a few others iden-tified by the Off Ice of Technology Assessment) serve specific communities and offer Native program-min glocal news, Native- relevant information, Native- language programming, and Native- produced music, information, talk shows, and news Cable TV Stations n Navajo Nation TV 5 (Arizona) Programming: Public Broadcasting System (PBS) programming and five hours weekly of Navajo-Ianguage features Plans to offer signal on UHF band to avoid cable hookup. Currently has 5,000 subscribers n Sioux Satellite Cable (serving Lower Brule and West Brule Reservations, South Dakota) Programming Locally produced information, children's shows, and Native- language features Founded in 1991 Broadcasts five days per week n Cherokee Cable Vision (Eastern Band of Cherokee Reservation, North Carolina) Programming. Monthly live telecast of tribal council meeting. People call in during the meeting n Blackfeet Tribe TV (Montana) l WSBC Seminole Cable TV (Florida) n Choctaw Cable WHTV (Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, Pearl River Reservation, Mississippi) Programming. Affiliated with The Learning Channel and carries live coverage of tribal events and American Indian- oriented news and documentaries. in the process of expanding to SIX other Choctaw reservations nearby Over- the- Air TV Stations n KYUK in Bethel, Alaska Programming English and Yup'ik- language programming for a mixed audience. n Navajo Nation "Purple Cow" TV (serving Rock Point Reservation) Programming PBS and two hours per week of news, documentary, and educational training fea-tures produced by students and staff at the Sauer and Rock Point Community Schools Founded in 1987 Plans to build new studios with help of schools and the Navajo Nation Other Native- owned and -operated TV stations have been supported by grants from the Commerce Department's National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), through NTIA's Pub-Iic Telecommunications Facilities Program (PTFP), 1 One of the largest PTFP awards is the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) distance- learning network, which links 29 U. S.- based trib-al colleges using satellites. Many native American PTFP public television grantees are participants in the AIHEC grant The PTFP awards Include PTFP Grants for Over- the- Air Public Television l Three grants (1984, 1985, 1986) to Navajo Community College (Arizona) to establish a system of SIX low- power television stations to transmit locally produced programming (AIHEC member) (continued) 1 National Telecommunications and Information Administration, "PTFP Native American Awards July 1994 " 54 48 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges A 1982 grant to Ojibwa Community College (Michigan) to construct a translator to bring public televi-sion to the Keweenaw Bay Indian Reservation A 1982 grant to Dull Knife Community College (Montana) to establish a low- power television station to serve the Cheyenne Reservation. A 1985 grant provided a translator. (AIHEC member) A 1986 grant to Salish- Kootenal College (Montana) to establish a low- power television station to bring a PBS signal to the Flathead Indian Reservation via the Rural Television Service, Inc. (RTS) based in Carson City, Nevada A 1992 grant activated a translator to extend the signal to the Reservation com-munities of Arlee, Evaro, and Dixon (AIHEC member) Note SKC TV today is a UHF station offering PBS service to most of the Flathead reservation, but soon wiII face competition from the University of Montana, Missoula, which plans to construct a full- power VHF PBS station with an NTIA/ PTFP grant A 1985 grant to Browning Public Schools (Montana) to establish a low- power television station to bring a PBS signal to the Blackfeet Reservation via the RTS system A 1985 grant to the Mescalero Apache Tribe (New Mexico) to establish two low- power television sta-tions to bring a PBS signal to that reservation via the RTS system. A 1989 grant Improved studio equip-ment for local programming. Three grants to Rogers State College (Oklahoma) to construct (1 985), improve (1 988), and extend PTV service to the native American population of northeast Oklahoma with greater transmission power (1990) PTFP Awards for Nonbroadcast Television n n n n A 1980 grant to Metlakatla Indian Reservation (Alaska) for a video production studio to produce Native programming for the local cable TV A 1992 grant to Northern Arizona University for duplex microwave distance- learning systems from the Flagstaff campus to Mojave Community College, Mojave Indian Reservation (Arizona) and Northland Pioneer Community College, connected to Iearning centers at the Fort Apache Reservation A 1993 grant extended the system to two towns on the Navajo Reservation and to one location on the Hopi Reservation Grants in 1979 and 1982 to Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (North Carolina) to construct a cable TV system for the reservation A 1993 grant to Standing Rock College (North Dakota) to activate a distance- learning system inter-connected via telephone Iines between its main campus, a remote- learning center on the Reserva-tion, and the University of North Dakota (AIHEC member) Based on this Information, OTA estimates that there are at least six Native- owned and -operated cable TV stations and about the same number of over- the- air, low- power television stations SOURCES Off Ice of Technology Assessment 1995, with information from Michael C Keith, Signals in the Air: Native Broadcasting in America (Westport CT: Praeger Publishers 1995), and Michael C Keith, Communication Department, Boston College, Boston, MA personal communication February 1995 I (see box 3- 3). With a three- year National Tele- ogy. If successful, this technology could be ex-communications and Information Administration tended to Native American K- 12 schools, and to planning grant and a follow- on demonstration non- Native colleges and universities with Native 12 AIHEC is also consider- grant, AIHEC plans to deploy and demonstrate a American populations. videoconferencing system using satellite technol- ing a role for the network as part of tribal commu-12 Facts and figures on 200 colleges and universities with Native American students have been compiled for the first time in AISES Annual College Guide for American Indians 1994- 1995 (Boulder, CO: American Indian Science and Engineering Society, 1994). 55 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building 149 n n n n n n The American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) comprises 29 tribal colleges Three are four-year institutions and the rest are two- year community colleges The colleges are located in 12 states dis-tributed as follows, Montana (7), North Dakota (5), South Dakota (4), New Mexico (3), Wisconsin (2), Min-nesota (2), and one college each in Michigan, Nebraska, Kansas, Washington, California, and Arizona. Over FY 1992- 94, Congress made available to the Commerce Department's National Telecommunica-tions and Information Administration (NTIA) a total of $1 million ($ 250,000 in 1992 and again in 1993, and $500,000 in 1994) to help AIHEC plan how best to use telecommunications technologies to fulfill its mission The project takes the form of a cooperate agreement between NTIA and AIHEC and is be-ing administered by NTIA's Public Telecommunications Facilities Program. Consultants for the AIHEC planning grant include Nebraska ETV in Lincoln, the native American Public Broadcasting Consortium (NAPBC), and two experts in telecommunications. Nebraska ETV developed and operates the AG* SAT Network and cofounded the SERC Network. NAPBC has experience in radio and television production as well as program acquisition and distribution Moreover, NAPBC has a strong reputation working with and for Native American public broadcasting. The expert individuals have experience in developing distance- learning networks that are successfully up and running. The first- year report recommended that that the first phase of equipment purchase should consist of a C/ Ku- Band satellite receive- only antenna and classroom video equipment for each AIHEC school and the AIHEC Washington, DC, headquarters The estimated cost IS $600,000. The second- year report rec-ommended that each school be equipped with a Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) satellite uplink/ downlink with a compressed video attachment and a video origination classroom Furthermore, a net-work- switching center would presumably complete the AIHEC network. This equipment would cost $39 million, phased in over four years When fully Implemented, the AIHEC network wiII allow AIHEC to help Native Americans participate in the emerging National Information Infrastructure in the future, the AIHEC network might also be used as an on- ramp to computer networks such as the Internet in spring 1995, AIHEC expanded the scope of the project to include assisting tribal colleges in the devel-opment of local telecommunications infrastructure. With AIHEC and tribal college help, communities can more broadly deploy and use computer networks. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, with information from "The AIHEC Telecommunications Development Project, June 29, 1994, " unpublished document, "American Indian Higher Education Consortium Telecommunications Network: Building Our Future as a People Through Telecommunications" (pamphlet), and Gary Garrison, Telecommunications Project Manager, AIHEC, Lin-coln, NE, private communications, March 1995 nity communications centers located at tribal col- en the range of their offerings with courses pro-leges. Moreover, if videoconferencing partnerships could be formed between tribal and non- Native colleges, learning and research could be enhanced in a multitude of academic areas, including an-thropology, linguistics, Native American studies, alternative medicine, and subsistence/ sustainable economics. Universities with Native populations might want relevant educational programming and real- time courses produced and taught by Na-tive Americans, such as the AIHEC system could provide. And tribal colleges might seek to broad- vided by large universities. Tribal colleges also might want to participate in nationally available videoconferences. For exam-ple, the JASON project administered by the JA-SON Foundation for Education but supported by an alliance of public, private, government, and nonprofit institutions allows school children to observe scientific researchers working in remote geographic areas and ask them questions during real- time videoconferences. Founded in 1989 by the discoverer of the R. M. S. Titanic, Dr. Robert Ballard, the JASON Project hopes to achieve high 56 50 I TelecommunicationsTechnology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Left: Students using a personal computer laboratory at the Little Big Horn College on the Crow Indian Reservation, Crow Agency Montana. Rlght: The Little Big Horn College encourages students to use computers for doing class projects and homework. AJl students have access to computer laboratories. visibility among scientists, educators, and stu-dents throughout the United States and participat-ing countries. 13 Videoconferencing has wide potential for Na-tive Americans' education. Successful projects are under way in, for example, the North Slope Borough School District in northernmost Alaska, the Lower Yukon and Kuskokwim School Dis-tricts in the delta region of Alaska, and the Univer-sity of Hawaii's community college system. n Computer Networking Computer networking is becoming a key research tool for students and faculty to access various re-mote databases and documents, exchange draft materials for collegial review, or arrange partici- pation in academic conferences. These applica-tions should be equally helpful in the Native American educational and research environment, especially for exchanging information with other Native American researchers and for accessing the growing number of electronic bulletin boards, file servers, and list servers on Native American top-ics (see appendix A for a more detailed discus-sion). Electronic mail and, to a lesser extent, desktop computer conferencing are becoming more com-monplace as a complement to traditional teaching methods, and allow students as young as 3rd grade to reach out electronically to other communities and even nations. These systems offer real poten-tial for helping Native students indifferent tribes, 13 The JASON Project maintains several list server discussion groups, a Gopher server, and a World Wide Web home page (http: // sea-wifs. gsfc. naaa. gov/ scripts/ JASON. html). Until 1995, interactive satellite broadcasts were watched from Primary Interactive Network Sites (PINS) such as NASA- AMES Research Center, Denver Museum of Natural History, Maui High Performance Computing Center, Bell Museum of Natural History in Minnesota, The Williams Companies in Oklahoma, University of Wisconsin in Milwaukee, and the National Geographic Center, as well as several other sites. This year, for the first time, people around the world were able to participate in the JASON VI Expedition live via the Internet (videoconferencing on the Internet uses MBONE technology). 57 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building | 51 villages, and communities to interact electronical-ly with each other and perhaps become computer pen pals, especially if travel to other areas and meeting face- to- face is prohibitively expensive. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has, for many years, operated the Educational Native American Network (ENAN). ENAN allows teachers, BIA Office of Indian Education Pro-grams officials, and students to communicate us-ing electronic mail. ENAN was created to serve the BIA school system as a communications hub to facilitate math/ science curricula development and discussions on applications of educational technology. ENAN is accessible either by dialing in or through a direct connection to the Internet (using remote login, also called Telnet). The ma-jority of ENAN users do not have direct connec-tions, and thus they dial in to ENAN using a mo-dem. Low- quality phone lines frequently cause a major problem; they may slow transmission speeds or be entirely ineffective for accessing the network. ENAN has several pilot projects to offer more advanced services. In some cases, it serves as an Internet provider by offering SLIP/ PPP connec-tivity (Serial Line Interface Protocol/ Point- to-Point Protocol, a service that allows computers to become Internet nodes with nondigital telephone lines). Access with SLIP/ PPP is critical in order to use World Wide Web browsers such as Mosaic and Netscape, and more exotic applications such as In-ternet Relay Chat (IRC). In the near future, ENAN will be able to offer Internet access through Inte-grated Services Digital Network (ISDN) lines, digital lines offered by telephone companies. Moreover, ENAN now maintains an Internet World Wide Web home page. 14 Finally, ENAN is helping to develop new technology by serving as a Beta tester for eSoft company's Internet Protocol Adapter (IPAD), a networking technology. ENAN is a four- person operation with ad-vanced technical capability, but without adequate resources (or a mandate) to provide technical as-sistance to tribes. Nevertheless, it has allowed many educators and students to become familiar with the technology and has encouraged planning for future development of computer networking. ENAN provides as much technical assistance as it can with its limited resources. Unfortunately, the queue for technical assistance is long. The American Indian Science and Engineering Society (AISES), a national Native American stu-dent and professional organization with chapters at colleges and universities nationwide, maintains the AISES Information System (AIS) and AISES-net for its members. 15 AIS, by arrangement with New Mexico Technet, an Internet provider, is a "1- 800" dial- in "on- ramp" to the Internet for which AISES members are allocated 10 hours per month free use. AIS supports such well- known In-ternet applications as Gopher (menu- based user interface to electronic databases), Telnet (to log in to other computers), electronic mail (e- mail), and dial- up capability to bulletin board services (BBSs). It does not, however, support a World Wide Web browser such as Mosaic. AISESnet, in contrast to AIS, is an Internet- accessible Gopher server with information such as a resume data-base, four moderated discussion groups (also called list servers), and a World Wide Web home page. 16 AISESnet is not an on- ramp, but a destina-tion for information and an electronic forum for discussion. 14 The ENAN World Wide Web home page can be accessed at http:// oiep. unm. edu:/ enan/ home. html. 15 Emo Notah, Computer Technician, American Indian Science and Engineering Society, Boulder, CO, personal communication, April 1995. 16 The AISESnet discussion groups can be subscribed to by sending an e- mail request to listproc@ listserv. umt. edu with the message "sub-scribe " in the body. There are four listsP AISESnet_ General, AISESnet_ Discussion, AISESnet_ Drum, and AISES-net_ Alcohol. AISESnet_ Alcohol is an anonymous list; e- mail addresses of participants are not revealed. The AISESnet World Wide Web home page can be accessed at http:// bioc02. uthscsa. edu/ aisesnet. html. 58 52 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges The National Science Foundation (NSF), long a supporter of telecommunications infrastructure for science and education, funded a Native Ameri-can Telecommunications Forum 17 where, for the first time, telecommunications issues and strate-gies were explored by a group of Native American experts and advocates. NSF has, in addition, awarded the Electronic Pathways Alliance a plan-ning grant to develop a national Native American center for telecommunications technical assist-ance. Another NSF program related to Native Ameri-cans is the All Nations Alliance for Minority Par-ticipation (AMP), administered by Montana State University. AMP awards have been made to Fond-Du- Lac Community College (Minnesota) to en-courage students to attain undergraduate and grad-uate degrees in computer science and engineering, and to Sinte Gleska University (South Dakota) to develop teacher leadership in mathematics and science education for more than 1,000 American Indian elementary students. NSF also supports the Rural Systemic Initiatives (RSI), all but one of which directly involve or impact Native Ameri-cans. RSI grants have been awarded to the "four corners" Navajo reservation region of Utah, Colo-rado, Arizona, and New Mexico (the UCAN proj-ect); the Alaska Federation of Natives; and a group of California and Nevada tribes. In all, be-tween FY 1991 and FY 1994, NSF has provided more than $6 million in direct support to 12 tribal-ly controlled colleges. 18 The National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-tration (NASA), another independent federal sci-ence and technology agency, supports a few proj-ects that benefit Native Americans. Foremost is the American Indian Science and Technology Education Consortium initiative that has created partnerships between six off- reservation universi-tiesP including Oklahoma State University, which has a large Native American student bodyP and five tribal colleges. The goals are to help the universities serve the tribal colleges as a resource for institution- building, and to develop culturally relevant model programs for math/ sci-ence education for Native American students of all ages from preschool to graduate school. The telecommunications goals are to create an online database, accessible through the Internet, for cur-riculum models and to provide Internet access and computers to the tribal colleges. Another NASA project connects the Sequoyah High School and the W. W. Keeler Complex of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma to the Internet through the NASA Science Internet. The Cherokee Nation plans to develop a network for all its offices in a 14- county area. The Department of Defense (DOD) recently expanded the Infrastructure Support Program for HBCUs/ MIs (Historically Black Colleges and Universities/ Minority Institutions) to include tribal colleges. This program, funded at about $15 million per year since 1992, received another $10 million in 1995 to extend grants and contracts to tribal and women's colleges. This program is managed by the Army Research Office, but in-cludes funds from the Air Force Office of Scientif-ic Research, Office of Naval Research, and Ad-vanced Research Projects Agency. The program is intended to promote collaborative research in ma-jor laboratories; strengthen programs in engineer-ing, science, and math; fund instrumentation pur-chases; and provide technical assistance to enhance the ability of minority institutions to suc-cessfully compete for future DOD funding. The National Indian Policy Center, at George Washington University in Washington, DC, uses computer networks to disseminate commissioned Native American research and policy analysis re-ports, as well as other information such as census 17 First Native American Telecommunications Forum: Final Report, prepared for the National Science Foundation (Bernalillo, NM: Ameri-cans for Indian Opportunity, February 1994). 18 Nora Sabelli, Program Director, Networking Infrastructure for Education, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC, personal com-munication, April 1995. 59 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building data and treaties. One of the center's purposes is "to serve as an information clearinghouse for Na-tive Americans." 19 This online database is funded by the Administration for Native Americans (De-partment of Health and Human Services). Overall, Native students, teachers, researchers, and educational leaders are embracing computer networking and other new educational technolo-gies with good results. Many K- 12 schools, com-munity colleges, and libraries have received pilot-project funds for computer networking. However, on the downside, funding is inadequate to allow the majority of schools, and noninstitutional edu-cators in general, to participate. And Native poli-cies for use and access are generally nonexistent. Moreover, without proper supervision and in-formed use, Native educators are concerned that computer networking could expose Native youth to undesirable and potentially harmful informa-tion (e. g., exposure to personal lifestyles and per-spectives that run counter to Native values, as is the case with some television shows). n Multimedia Multimedia offer potential for recording and pres-enting Native cultures, histories, and concepts of health and wellness, and for representing and ex-plaining Native communities and peoples. The development of multimedia software by and for Native Americans, overall, is in the very early stages. The potential market is likely to be signifi-cant, based on results of pilot tests and experience to date. K- 12 and community college students and teachers have demonstrated their ability to effec-tively use computers and computer software when given the opportunity (i. e., equipment, time, en-couragement, and training). This appears to be the case across the spectrum of American Indian, I 53 Top: Applied Science Building at the Oglala Lakota College on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, Kyle, South Dakota. This building houses the colleges instructional technology center Bottom: Videotape collection available to teachers and students at the Oglala Lakota College. Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian communities that have experimented with computers in the classroom. For example, Apple Computer funded the Pine Ridge High School on the Pine Ridge Reservation and the Nazlini Boarding School on the Navajo Reservation through its Crossroads Educational l9 The other two purposes to commission Native American research and policy analysis, and to sponsor seminars and conferences on issues of concern to American Indians and Alaska Natives. Research grants are awarded in seven areas: cultural rights and resources, economic development, education, health and human services, law and administration of justice, natural resources and environmental protection, and tribal governance. National Indian Policy Center pamphlet Washington, DC, 1994. 60 54 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Grant program. 20 Digitized images, animation, art and music composition, and communications with Austria and Australia became reality for Pine Ridge High School students after they received Apple computers and network access. The Oglala students shared pow- wow dancing, Lakota leg-ends, and video introductions of themselves with computer pen pals. Students could find informa-tion for essays using a multimedia encyclopedia. One student wrote a summary of Darwin's theory of evolution. Another student used multimedia computer art to show two dolphins swimming and one emerging to become a seagull. Students were motivated to search for a wide variety of informa-tion to include in their own multimedia composi-tions. The positive experience of these Native Ameri-cans, ranging from grade- schoolers to thirty-somethings (not unusual in tribal colleges), is in-dicative of the future potential for Native American multimedia. If Native Americans are to have a major role in the actual development and marketing of Native American multimedia, a con-certed entrepreneurial initiative (with education, training, and funding elements) will be needed. HEALTH CARE Health care professionals are learning and devel-oping new concepts for telecommunications-based health care systems, including telemedi-cine, 21 community health information networks, electronic patient records, clinical information systems, and electronic claims- processing. These systems are still in development and their full po-tential is unknown. However, pilot projects indi-cate that a profound change could occur in the de-livery of health care via telecommunications over the next decade. 22 Native American health care professionals have their own concepts for Native health. They will want to pursue the development of health care delivery systems that are culturally acceptable and adaptable to the groups they serve. z Videoconferencing Telemedicine is broadly defined as the use of in-formation technology to deliver medical services and information between sites. Two- way video-conferencing is a key technology component of telemedicine systems. Telemedicine combines vi-deoconferencing with the informational capabili-ties of computers. The remote location of many Native communities means that medical and health care services are limited. Primary health care provided to Indian reservations, Alaska Na-tive villages, and Native Hawaiian communities through remote health clinics and small hospitals has improved in recent years. Access to medical specialists, however, continues to be limited. Telemedicine could facilitate remote consulta-tions between onsite providers and specialists at major medical centers in metropolitan areas, sup-ported by the electronic transmission of diagnos-tic x- rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, and the like (known as teleradiology). It also could increase the opportunities for medical and health personnel at remote locations to partic-ipate in continuing medical education without having to leave their communities. These benefits might also extend to family health counselors, so-cial workers, nutritionists, and other professionals working in the community to help improve Native American health. To be cost- effective, a video-conferencing facility might be shared for medical, social, and educational purposes. 20 Cindy Hamilton, "Combining High- Tech with Lakota Legend: Pine Ridge Students Utilize Computers To Communicate Their Culture," Winds of Change, summer 1993, pp. 34- 36. 21 Jane Preston, M. D., F. A. P. A., The Telemedicine Handbook: Improving Health Care with Interactive Video (Austin, TX: Telemedicine Interactive Consultative Services, Inc., 1994). 22 For discussions about telecommunications and information technologies in health care, see U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess-ment, Information Technology and the Health Care System, in progress; and James S. Logan and David G. Swartz, Aberdeen Area Indian Health Service: Telemedicine Assessment Final Report (Oklahoma City, OK: Logan & Associates, Inc., Mar. 30, 1995). 61 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building | 55 A good example of shared use of telecommun-ications infrastructure is the Distance Delivery Consortium headquartered in Bethel, Alaska. The consortium is a partnership of medical, education-. al, and governmental organizations and telecom-munications companies with the shared objective of developing effective telecommunications ap-plications, such as telemedicine and distance learning, in this part of rural Alaska. Distance-learning applications include high school courses, health education, and teacher in- service training. The Yukon- Kuskokwim Health Corp. hopes that telecommunications will play a key role in pro-moting preventive health and community well-ness strategies. n Computer Networking Computer networking is another key component of telemedicine in general, and of community health information networks, computerized pa-tient records, clinical information systems, and electronic claims- processing in particular. Com-puter networks can be used to exchange patient re-cords among various providers and locations; conduct remote searches of medical and health da-tabases; file health insurance claims (e. g., using electronic data interchange); and receive pay-ments for medical services and insurance reim-bursements (e. g., using electronic funds trans-fer). 23 These applications are being extensively researched in the general health care community, and seem particularly appropriate for Native health care facilities located considerable dis-tances from tertiary care providers, medical spe-cialists and researchers, and insurance companies. Computer networking potentially offers an effec-tive means to collect and exchange information on Native health perspectives and practices. The use of computerized patient records for Native Americans would require attention to the same 23 Ibid, Top: Videoconferencing room at Tripler Army Medical Center Honolulu. The U. S. Army and Department of Veterans Affairs, in collaboration with the University of Hawaii School of Medi-cine, intend to use telecommunications to improve patient care for military personnel and veterans throughout the Pacif- ic Basin- including Oahu, the neighbor islands, Guam, and American Samoa. Bottom: Prototype desktop videoconfer- encing system at Tripler Army Medical Center privacy and security concerns raised by medical consumer advocacy groups. 24 Like other areas of technology discussed, it will be helpful for Native American groups to partici-pate in the wide range of current or future pilot tests and demonstrations. In this way, the potential benefits and problems can be understood from a Native American perspective. 24 For a discussion, see U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Protecting Privacy in Computerized Medical Information, OTA-TCT- 576 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, September 1993). 62 56 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges z Multimedia Multimedia is a key technology in medical in-formation and training systems that could benefit Native Americans. For example, multimedia of-fers the potential to record and present detailed in-formation on the human body, simulate medical procedures, model human physiology, and use computer- aided design tools to design prosthetic devices. With multimedia software, computerized patient records could include images, videos, and audio recordings as well as text to describe a pa-tient's symptoms, diagnoses, treatment, and over-all health history and condition. The Visible Human Project is an example of a multimedia application that will improve the education of health care professionals nationwide, including Native American professionals and those that serve Native Americans. This project is funded through the federal High Performance Computing and Communications Program as one of its "Grand Challenges." The project will create an electronic "image library" of three- dimension-al images of the male and female body that will be accessible through computers and computer net-works. Computerized tomography (CT), MRI, and cryosection images at one millimeter separa-tion will be stored on 70 to 80 CD- ROMs and will likely be available via the Internet. 25 z Wireless Many Native American telemedicine systems will need to use wireless technologies to meet the de-mands of weather, terrain, and remote locations. Videoconferencing and computer networking de-pend on microwave and satellite links to reach the most remote facilities. In the future, personal communications systems may play an important role. One of the earliest telemedicine demonstra-tions (started in 1972), Space Technology Applied to Rural Papago Advanced Health Care (STAR-PAHC), 26 linked a medical van to two hospitals via analog two- way microwave television and au-dio transmissions. STARPAHC was a joint proj-ect of NASA, Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. (now Lockheed/ Martin), Indian Health Service (IHS), Department of Health, Education and Wel-fare (now Health and Human Services), and the Papago Tribe (now Tohono O'Odham). The les-sons learned for telemedicine were the necessity for advanced planning, including early develop-ment of an evaluation plan, clear definition of ob-jectives, and the active involvement of the com-munity. 27 A recent telemedicine project carried out by the IHS and NASA used satellite technology to link one IHS facility on the Pine Ridge Reservation (Oglala Sioux) in South Dakota with the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. The objectives were twofold: "1) to determine the technical re-quirements for a large group practice to provide professional education and clinical consulting services to a geographically- remote Indian reser-vation, and 2) to determine whether these services are perceived as useful by the health care profes-sionals, the community health representatives, 25 National Library of Medicine, "The Visible Human Project," Fact Sheet, April 1993. 26 R. Bashshur, Technology Serves the People: The Story of a Co- operative Telemedicine Project by NASA, the Indian Health Service, and the Papago People (Tucson, AZ: Indian Health Service, 1979). 27 "Through active participation in the STARPAHC project, the Papago have demonstrated a very serious interest in what this technology can offer their people. The tribal representatives who were members of the Executive Health Staff diligently participated in all the preparatory design meetings pertaining to this project, learning the basic terminology to deal intelligently with each issue put before them on the discussion table, be it related to the design of the mobile health unit, power generation for the relay stations, or the broadband/ narrowband choices in trans-mission and display equipment. . . . The Papago insisted on, and they achieved, an explicit acknowledgment of their own primary health objec-tives, namely, to live as a people in harmony with nature, as the primary objective of STARPAHC. The evaluation plan developed for STAR-PAHC recognized the Papago objective as the project's basic objective." Ibid., p. 55. 63 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building | 57 Top left: Aircraft parked at the Red Dog Mine, about IOO air miles above the Arctic Circle. The dirt airstrip and propeller- driven planes are typical of remote Alaska locations that are otherwise inaccessible. Bottom left: Red Dog Mine, a joint venture of an Alaska Native corporation and a private company Top right: Satellite dishes at the Red Dog Mine. All telecommunications must be via satellite; land line connections are not feasible. Bottom right: The Red Dog Mine is heavily dependent on telecommu-nications! for administrative, inventory scheduling, ordering, payroll, personnel, and other purposes. and the patients of the reservation." 28 Based on a questionnaire filled out by employees of the Pine Ridge Hospital, community health representa-tives, and Mayo Clinic participants, the project was considered technologically successful, feasi-ble, and useful. Costs could be reduced by using the telecommunications line for both health education and patient care. Other savings might accrue by using telemedicine to identify patients who could be treated in Pine Ridge rather than in a distant medical facility, which would incur trans-portation costs. Indirect savings might accrue through more effective and efficient treatment plans, and through early identification of health problems. The lessons of this project were not meant to be generally applicable to all tribes. Even for the Oglala Sioux tribe, affordability, regulato-ry, and political barriers to permanent deployment were not addressed. Native Americans on reservations and in Alas-ka villages will require special use of wireless links to reach the most remote locations. Wireless computer networking could offer Native Ameri-can communities access to free or low- cost medi-cal and health information databases. Health insti-tutions around the country may benefit from better 28 Thomas E. Kottke, Leonard Little Finder, Mary Alice Trapp, and Laurel Panser, "The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation/ Mayo Clinic / NASA Telemedicine Project: A Feasibility Study;" abstract, Second International Conference on the Medical Aspects of Telemedicine and Second Annual Mayo Telemedicine Symposium, Apr. 6- 7, 1995, p. 2. 64 58 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges communications with Native communities, for example, in conducting research on holistic health methods. However, Native leaders and medical specialists need to be included in the design, test-ing, and implementation of these new systems if they are to be accepted and meet Native needs. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Businesses, entrepreneurs, community services, and government officesP in areas such as eco-nomic development, housing, infrastructure, land use, or environmental protectionP are increasing-ly using telecommunications, forming or encour-aging telecommunications businesses, or devel-oping telecommunications infrastructure. Native American communities are generally behind the mainstream economy in the deployment of tele-communications and the ownership of telecom-munications companies, but are increasingly aware of the potential benefits. Economic devel-opment in Native American communities, vil-lages, and tribes is generally predicated on a re-quirement to protect the environment and honor the earth. Geographic Information Systems allow Native American communities to take care of their land and natural resources in culturally relevant and sustainable ways. In general, Native Ameri-can businesses and regulators can emulate or adapt mainstream uses of telecommunications. z Videoconferencing Videoconferencing could be a useful tool to Na-tive Americans for job- related training and career exploration. A videoconferencing capability in Native communities would help to open up access to the already extensive teletraining opportunities in numerous job, career, and skill areas. Native American groups may be able to negotiate more favorable package rates when acting collectively. Also, Native groups may be able to collectively achieve a critical mass that can support the devel-opment or adaptation of training materials specifi-cally for Native Americans. Beyond training, videoconferencing offers op-portunities for Native business people to consult with financiers, suppliers, and customers in major metropolitan areas (and potentially overseas) as part of Native product development, financing, and marketing efforts. z Computer Networking Computer networking is rapidly becoming an im-portant tool of successful businesses in the major metropolitan areas and telework centers. This is likely to be true as well for Native- owned and -op-erated businesses, especially those located in re-mote areas. Illustrative applications include track-ing private- sector business opportunities using computerized trading, sales, and marketing data-bases; monitoring government contracting oppor-tunities via the Commerce Business Daily and other federal agency announcements available on-line; exchanging market leads with other Native enterprises; identifying venture capital, banking, and government funding sources for minority en-terprises; and marketing Native products and ser-vices over the rapidly growing electronic enter-prise networks. Effective use of computer networking by Na-tive business people would require significant training on both the conceptual and technical lev-els. Providing affordable access to the technology and resolving intellectual property issues (e. g., copyright and trademark protection) that concern electronic entrepreneurs would also need to be ad-dressed. Many other tribal businesses may want to use an information system or establish a local area net-work to support company operations. Commer-cial systems for small businesses without in-house technical expertise are increasingly available at declining costs. Tribal companies may also consider connecting to wide area net-works, such as the Internet, for electronic com-merce or telemarketing. While this currently re-quires technical assistance, in the future it should be as easy as establishing and using a telephone connectionP given a modern telecommunica-tions infrastructure. 65 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building | 59 Computer networking, 29 especially the Inter-net, has become an increasingly important busi-ness tool in the last few years. The exchange of business forms using electronic data interchange is widely available, including on the Internet. Hundreds of businesses now have multimedia home pages on the Internet that advertise their wares and services or provide online consulting. The number of commercial domains (a domain is a local area network with at least one host comput-er connected to the Internet) on the Internet is now greater than 25,000 and is increasing by about 1,000 per month. 30 The strongest growth is com-ing from computer, publishing, and financial companies. As a result of enormous growth and a high profile, people across the United States are asking how they can get on the Internet (see box 3- 4). The answer is not straightforward because the Internet industry is changing rapidly, and is still quite complex for the layperson. 31 Importantly, several major electronic com-merce and digital cash projects currently under way are working on privacy and security prob-lems 32 as well as marketing concerns. For exam-ple, CommerceNet 33 in California's Silicon Valley is a government- sponsored project of En-terprise Integration Technologies, with participa-tion by WestRen, the operator of the Bay Area Re-gional Research Network (BARRNET), and Stanford University. Similarly, the Microelec-tronics and Computer Technology Corp. (MCC), a government- supported consortium of approxi-mately 80 companies, is developing the Enter-prise Integration Network (EINet), a business net-work that will run applications over the Internet. The high- speed data networking services will be provided by Sprint. Directory, encryption, and eventually electronic funds transfer services will be available. z CD- ROM Databases CD- ROM optical storage allows more than 200,000 pages of text or 10,000 images to be stored on one 4.75- inch- diameter disk. Large numbers of historical, legal, business, and other records can be archived more easily and made available using CD- ROM technology for storage. For example, the Zuni Tribe in New Mexico, in conjunction with the Institute for the North Amer-ican West, has proposed the Zuni Watershed CD-ROM Project. It would make about 70,000 pages of reports and maps and 500 historical photographs available to Zuni planners, manag-ers, officials, and students. 34 Between 1970 and 1990, the Pueblo of Zuni collected historical doc-uments and expert testimony to support its bid to recover aboriginal lands illegally taken, as well as for compensation for the severe soil erosion caused by logging, over- grazing, and other activi-ties detrimental to the Zuni watershed. In 1990, based largely on these documents, the Zuni Tribe 29 For a broad discussion on the potential and challenges of telecommunications and information technologies for U. S. business and the economy, see U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Electronic Enterprises: Looking to the Future, OTA- TCT- 600 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, May 1994). 30 "Commercial Domains Break 25,000 Mark," The Internet Letter, vol. 2, No. 3, Dec. 1, 1994. 31 For a discussion about electronic commerce on the Internet, establishing a World Wide Web presence, and accessing the World Wide Web, see Larry Press, "Commercialization of the Internet," Communications of the ACM, vol. 37, No. 11, November 1994, pp. 17- 21. 32 See U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Information Security and Privacy in Network Environments, OTA- TCT- 606 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, September 1994) and Issue Update on Information Security and Privacy in Network Envi-ronments, OTA- BP- ITC- 147 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, June 1995). 33 A general discussion of the future of electronic commerce is presented in Jeff Ubois, "Wheels of Commerce: An Interview with Commer-ceNet's Cathy J. Medich and Jay M. Tenenbaum," Internet World, April 1995, pp. 62- 64, 66, 68. 34 Roger Anyon, Director, Heritage and Historic Preservation Office, Pueblo of Zuni, Zuni, NM, fax to Office of Technology Assessment, U. S. Congress, Washington, DC, Oct. 14, 1994. 66 60 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges '( How do we get Internet access?" This IS a question being heard with Increasing frequency in Indian Country. The answer is not simple. The foremost requirement is having an Internet access or service provider nearby. Required hardware includes a computer and a modem for a regular phone Iine, or a terminal adapter for a digital Iine such as Switch 56 or Integrated Services Digital Network, or a direct connection through a local area network (LAN) or campuswide network. Required software includes communications software and at least one applications software package, for example, for electronic mall, file transfers, remote log- in to another computer, or browsing menus and home pages. in some situations, applications software will be on the Internet provider's computer to which your computer is connected. This is the case for commercial services such as America Online, Prodigy, and Compu-Serve The exact hardware and software required will depend on the Internet provider and data- rate Iimitations imposed by noisy phone Iines. There are numerous books and magazines that guide Internet beginners 1 ; however, finding a computer- savvy friend helps significantly, See box 2- 4 for a description of the Internet. Commercial provision of Internet access began sometime after 1985. in that year, the National Sci-ence Foundation (NSF) encouraged the Internet to expand beyond university- and laboratory- based networks A few years later, plans were made to privatize the regional Internet networks and the NSF backbone All NSF subsidies to the backbone ended in April 1995 The transition has not been smooth, a competitive shakeout is in progress even as the market is emerging. Costs, pricing strategies, future needs, and the regulatory environment are all uncertain. Currently, rates and services vary consider-ably. A barrier to affordability occurs when the user requires a Iong- distance, rather than a local phone call to reach the Internet host computer, as is the case in many rural areas. Today, there are public and private providers of Internet, including. n the original Internet regional networks, n some online consumer services such as America Online, Prodigy, and CompuServe (these currently provide electronic mail through the Internet, but plan to offer Internet browser services), n numerous community networks such as the Blacks burg Electronic ViIlage, Virginia; Taos Telecom -munity, New Mexico, Big Sky Telegraph, Montana, Prairienet, Illinois, and Boulder Community Net-work, Colorado, (continued) 1 See, e. g., The Internet Unleashed (Indianapolis, IN: Prentice Hall Computer Publishing, 1994) See also Internet World, Wired or Boardwatch magazines settled its claim for damages against the United CD- ROM technology to make historical and other States for $25 million. tribal records available. The primary goal of the CD- ROM project is to make the document collection available to those z Geographic Information Systems involved in sustainable development, history, and Many tribes today are concerned with sustainable culture of the Zuni Tribe. A secondary goal is to land development, environmental protection, and create a model for other tribes interested in using obtaining accurate land records. 35 To plan for 35 For tribes, whose entire place in the federal system is based on the historical question of land who owns it and who has given it up or has had it taken land records are crucial and GIS is a much- needed and valuable tool." Phil lip Martin, Chief, Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. Philadelphia, MS, fax to Office of Technology Assessment, U. S. Congress, Washington. DC, May 2, 1995. 67 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building 161 n utility, 2 cable, 3 and software 4 companies; n government programs such as the Extension Indian Reservation Program (Department of Agriculture, Extension Service), ETAnet (Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration), and the Tribal Technical Assistance Program (Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administra-tion), n local and long- distance phone companies, and l hundreds of Internet resellers. Several mergers and buyouts among commercial providers are currently under way. For example, in November 1994, America Online bought Advanced Network Services, a joint venture established by MCI, IBM, and the University of Michigan to operate the NSFNet and sell Internet access to organiza-tions At about the same time, MCI announced a service that combines Internet access, electronic mail, and electronic shopping. BBN Internet Services Corp. recently bought Nearnet and BARRNET, regional Internet service providers in the northeast and San Francisco Bay Area, respectively. 5 The market is likely to be quite volatile over the next few years. How one gets Internet access depends on whether the user IS an individual or organization, small or large business, public or private, and so forth. Most large educational Institutions, government agen-cies, and businesses are creating their own local area networks that are, in turn, being connected to the Internet. Primary and secondary schools are slowly getting Internet access, some through a grant or service subsidy from the telephone company. North Carolina has a statewide initiative to hook up all schools government offices, health care clinics, and research facilities The key is to find a person or organization with similar needs and circumstances, and follow in their footsteps. SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1995 2 "Electric Company Plans Unlimited T- 1 Internet Access at $1995 a Month, " The Internet Letter, Feb. 1, 1995, pp. 1- 2 3 John McQuillan, "Reinventing the Internet for Broadband?" Business Communications Review, March 1995, pp. 12,14 4 "Microsoft Plans Wide Range of Internet Services Microsoft Network To Provide Billing in 19 Currencies, " The Inter-net Letter, Feb. 1, 1995, p 3 5 Reports of mergers from Joanne Cummings and Fred S Knight, "Internet Service Providers To Ride a Familiar Roll-er Coaster, " Business Communications Review, January 1995, pp. 67- 68 business development, housing developments, Systems can play a key role in assisting tribes, utilities, environmental protection, parks, and wildlife areas, the tribes first require detailed maps of their reservations, including information on natural resources and terrain. Many reserva-tions, trust lands, and Native Hawaiian homelands are poorly mapped out and have uncertain bound-aries. The last comprehensive reservation survey measurements were made in 1949 by the Bureau of Land Management. Geographic Information Alaska Native villages, and Native Hawaiians with their own land management responsibilities. Today, about 50 tribes run their own GISs and have formed a consortium, the Intertribal GIS Council, to share their concerns and knowledge. Most of these tribes received early exposure, con-sulting services, and training through the BIA's Geographic Data Service Center (GDSC) . 36 The tribes can buy GIS software at government rates. 36 Information from interviews with the four- person staff and contractors at the BIA Geographic Data Service Center in Lakewood. CO, Nov. 18, 1994. 68 62 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Basic GIS technology is now more user- friendly and can run on many types of computers. Ad-vanced GISs require faster computers, more memory, and high- bandwidth networking. While this makes GIS more useful, it also adds consider-ably to the cost. Tribes are struggling with long- distance, dial-in charges and looking for affordable ways to im-plement wide area networks to keep the costs of GIS networking down. Some tribes are dependent on a single person who is knowledgeable enough to make use of and maintain a tribal GIS. But if that person should leave, the tribe must train or hire another personP not always easy to do. Al-though GDSC policy encourages tribes to be self-sufficient, smaller tribes frequently fall back on GDSC training and consulting. 37 One type of useful data is remotely sensed imaging using satellite or airborne imagers, coupled with coordinate information from a Glob-al Positioning System. Acquiring such informa-tion can be expensive, but if important enough, even small tribes might pay. 38 John Goes In Center, president of Innovative GIS Solutions, develops GISs for Native Ameri-cans. His experiences indicate that most GISs lack a "cultural layer of data" that Native Americans want. 39 Moreover, he believes that GISs are not being fully used because of a lack of culturally relevant needs assessments and problems getting traditional tribe members and tribal councils to recognize the potential. Tribes are understandably reluctant to invest in technology whose benefits are not clearly understood. z Telecommunications Infrastructure Native- owned telecommunications and other technology- based companies are an important source of economic development and job cre-ation. 40 Many such companies today are as easily located on a reservation as in a city. For example, a Turtle Mountain tribal company in North Dako-ta, Uniband, Inc., has contracts with the Treasury Department, Internal Revenue Service, Indian Health Service, and North Dakota Fish and Game Department to develop electronic information systems and perform data entry and network man-agement. Companies such as Uniband are creating new market demands for an advanced telecommu-nications infrastructure. Gaming operations also drive the development of telecommunications infrastructure. The Oneida Indian Nation of New York, 41 for example, uses computer networks and information systems for managing its gaming enterprises, and is investing some earnings in advanced communications to serve community needs such as health care, education, cultural centers, and other business en-terprises. The new business enterprises, in turn, 37 Beth Wenstrom, Cartographer, Land Titles and Records Office, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Sacramento, CA, personal communication, May 1995. 38 Gary Emery, GIS Analyst, Forestry Division, Hoopa Valley Tribal Council, Hoopa, CA, personal communications, May 1995. For back-ground discussions, see OTA, Helping America Compete: The Role of Federal Scientific and Technical Information, op. cit., footnote 4; U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Remotely Sensed Data from Space: Distribution, Pricing, and Applications, Background Paper (Washington, DC: Office of Technology Assessment, July 1992); and U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Remotely Sensed Data: Technology, Management, and Markets, OTA- ISS- 604 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, September 1994). 39 As expressed in a presentation given at the 1994 National Congress of American Indians conference in Denver, CO, Nov. 13- 18, 1994. 40 See, for example, a discussion of five industries identified to present immediate, feasible opportunities for Indian reservations: manufac-turing (including telecommunications equipment), telecommunications and information services, and three industries that are heavy users of telecommunications and information technologies (environmental services, tourism, and retail) in National Center for American Indian Enter-prise Development, Growing Market Opportunities for Indian Reservation Enterprises, prepared by UIDA Consulting Group (Mesa, AZ: April 1991). 41 The Oneida Indian Nation of New York was the first Indian Nation to establish a home page at http:// nysernet. org/ oneida/. This home page chronicles the ongoing community development, including its community- wide use of computer networking. 69 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building | 63 further drive infrastructure development with additional needs for computer networking, tele-marketing, and information systems. Other gaming operations have driven demand -for satellite broadcasts and "1- 800" telephone ser-vice capability. For example, in 1991, MegaBingo was broadcast live via satellite every evening for 15 minutes from the Creek Nation Bingo Hall in Tulsa, Oklahoma, to 47 sites in 10 states and 31 reservations. 42 The Coeur D'Alene Tribe in Idaho is waiting for approval to conduct a lottery with toll- free "1- 800" calls from 36 states and the Dis-trict of Columbia (where lotteries are legal). Pay-ments would be made via credit cards. 43 The ma-jor investor, Denver- based Unistar Entertainment, Inc., is paying for a lottery office on the reserva-tion to be equipped with high- speed computers, fiberoptic phone lines, and perhaps a microwave radio hookup. 44 Several Native entrepreneurs have developed small software development and computer/ net-work consulting companies. For example, Jim Bradley (Tlingit) has developed two telecommu-nications companies- United Native American Network (UNAN), a nonprofit corporation with a Native American board of directors, and United Native American Telecommunications (UNAT), a for- profit sole proprietorship (see box 3- 5). Al-though the market for services on reservations is currently limited, these businesses have telecom-munications, software, and computer engineering expertise that will be assets if markets develop in the future. Many Native entrepreneurs want to move back to the reservation and are looking for opportunities to serve Native American commu-nities. Some could develop telework and informa-tion businesses similar to Uniband, provided the telecommunications infrastructure is available. Top: Uniband, a data processing company located on the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation, North Dakota. Bottom: Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority in Eagle Butte, South Dakota. Others, such as UNAN or UNAT, can provide or drive the infrastructure. Industries such as banking and insurance also drive the development of telecommunications in-frastructure to support computer networking and information systems. For example, the Native In-dian Alliance Insurance Company45 serves only 42 National Center for American Indian Enterpricse Development, op. cit., footnote 40, p. 71. 43 See Bunny Anquoe, "Attomeys General Attack Lottery" and "Gaming War of Words Continues on the Hill, '' Indian Country Today, Apr. 6, 1995. 44 "Coeur D'Alene's Lottery Plans Attract Investment Partners," Fort Apache Scout, Apr. 14, 1995. 45 Darrel A. Fitz, President, Native Indian Alliance Insurance Co., Anadarko, OK, at the National Congress of American Indians conference. Denver, CO, personal communication, Oct. 17, 1994. 70 64 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Telecommunications industries that were once separate are converging as each abandons older analog technologies and adopts digital technologies For example, telephone companies are replacing analog switches with digital switches, which allow the companies to offer fast data communications and computer networking And cable TV companies now have the technology to offer new digital phone services Cellular phone, radio, and broadcast TV industries are currently developing digital technolo-gies for the future, Within the past decade, new companies have formed to offer computer online ser-vices, electronic databases, videoconferencing, paging services, and access to computer networks such as the Internet The legislative and regulatory arenas for telecommunications Industries are like-wise changing and converging. Congress is trying to create a smooth transition to a level regulatory playing field for all competitors in the digital age. Amidst these telecommunications technology and regulatory changes, Jim Bradley (Tlingit) has founded two telecommunications companies that could serve as models for Native American telecom-munications entrepreneurship. Jim Bradley first founded United Native American Telecommunications (UNAT), which today offers long- distance, interLATA (Local Access Transfer Area), and local telephone and data communications. UNAT competes with Iong- distance providers such as AT& T and MCI, Alaska providers including Alas-com (recently bought by AT& T) and GCI, and some local telephone companies (here, UNAT operates as a Competitive Access Provider). UNAT has a long- distance, common- carrier Iicense from the Feder-al Communications Commission, a Washington State Public Utilities Commission Intrastate Iicense, and an Alaska business license. Its Alaska business derives mostly from Department of Defense contracts UNAT is also providing telecommunications Internationally, for example, in Botswana. Although it is a sole proprietorship, the company policy broadly promotes native American telecommunications, it ac-tively hires Native Americans and provides scholarships and training to students who aspire to careers in telecommunications. Bradley's second business, United Native American Network (UNAN), is a 501 c nonprofit corpora-tion offering videoconferencing and computer networking services to Native American educational and health organizations It IS financed with 25 percent of the profits from UNAT and has an all- lndian board of directors A new facility under construction (close to the Swinomish, Skagit, and Lummi Indian reser-vations in Washington State) will house six distance- learning production studios and a videoconferenc-ing room UNAN aspires to be an Information hub and telecommunications services resource for all Native American educators and health care providers, including social services such as substance abuse prevention programs. Some specific goals include developing a computerized patient records' database and Interactive distance- learnlng programs for adult education Both UNAT and UNAN were founded and operate without federal grants or loans. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, with information from Jim Bradley, President and CEO, United native American Telecommunications, Burlington, WA, personal communications, April 1995 tribes, and underwrites auto and burial insurance There is currently a chicken- and- egg dilemma o meet the regulations and cultural needs of each on many reservations regarding the supply and de-tribe. The company plans to use computer net- mand of data communications. Commercial pro-working for marketing and transactional pur- viders will not invest in infrastructure until there is poses, and will likely use flexible computer soft- demand, and demand will not develop in the ab-ware configurations to tailor information systems sence of supply. One solution is for Native tribes/ to company specifications. villages/ communities to work closely or partner 71 Chapter 3 Telecommunications TechnoIogy and Native American Community- Building with telecommunications companies or to form their own companies or cooperatives to develop local telecommunications infrastructure. -GOVERNANCE Tribal governments, including Alaska Native vil-lage governments, vary widely in form and func-tion. Some carry out limited activities and rely heavily on state and federal governments. Others are variously responsible for: roads, water, sewer, electricity, housing, telecommunications, law en-forcement, courts, emergency services, social ser-vices, education, health care, environmental protection, and economic development. Whatever the level of activity, tribal governments are en-gaged in maintaining govemment- to- govemment relationships with federal and state governments; working to uphold prior treaties and laws; and de-veloping future laws and agreements. Current is-sues that Native American governments are pur-suing at the federal and/ or state levels include federal/ state recognition; jurisdiction for taxation and criminal prosecution; recovery of lands taken pursuant to broken treaties; religious freedom; control over lands and resources held in trust; education, health care, and social services; the regulation of gaming; land use such as hunting, fishing, and grazing; and water rights. Tribal governments are beginning to recognize and assume responsibility to plan for, encourage, and regulate the myriad uses of telecommunica-tions in their communities. They are following the lead of many state and local governments that are developing telecommunications infrastructure, using or supporting new telecommunications ap-plications for governance and commmunity-building, and regulating telecommunications. Projects include, for example, statewide high-bandwidth telecommunications infrastructure for schools, health facilities, and government offices; electronic town halls; online dissemination of reg- | 65 Top: Maui Research and Technology Center located in Kihei on Maui Island, Hawaii. Bottom: MRTC houses the Maui Su- percomputing Center, various economic development and educational offices, and several small business start- up com-panies. MRTC is a partnership of the federal, state, and county governments and the private sector. ulations and codes; telecommuting centers; and police information systems. n Videoconferencing As Native tribes, villages, and communities as-sume greater responsibility for their own gover- 72 66 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges nance, 46 the need for ongoing consultation and ne-gotiation with their own residents, other Native groups, and federal and state government agencies is likewise growing. Videoconferencing could in-crease the level of communicationsP without in-curring excessive additional cost (relative to the costs of traveling)P among various Native lead-ers and groups. Videoconferencing could help Native groups participate more frequently and effectively in var-ious federal agency proceedings, meetings, hear-ings, and the like. For example, the Cherokee Na-tion is advocating either a tribal or govern-ment- led initiative or partnership to implement a videoconferencing system with the Department of the Interior's Office of Self- Governance (OSG). The Self- Governance Coordinator of the Chero-kee Nation sees a cost- effective role for videocon-ferencing in communicating with the OSG. "Tribes and the Office of Self- Governance need to meet at least monthly, but also as needed to solve imminent problems. A typical meeting will in-clude about six tribal people and three govern-ment people. Videoconferencing could save sig-nificant travel time and expenses for these meetings." 47 At a minimum, for videoconferencing to be successful: 1) Native leaders and citizens must be comfortable using the electronic medium to com-plement the face- to- face in- person meetings that traditionally are preferred; and 2) videoconferenc-ing must be affordable and cost- effective. z Computer Networking Computer networking is growing at the federal, state, 48 and local levels of government. Numerous applications seem relevant to Native govern-ments, including electronic mail among Native leaders and with citizens; timely access to notices of federal and state agency hearings, meetings, and rulemakings relevant to Native concerns; ac-cess to a wide range of federal environmental, en-ergy, statistical, criminal justice, and other data-bases 49 that bear on areas of tribal or village government; filing of federal and state taxation and financial documents (e. g., using electronic data interchange); payment/ receipt of funds (e. g., using electronic funds transfer); and, most impor-tantly, delivery of federal services via Native gov-ernments and Native service- providers (e. g., us-ing electronic benefits transfer). 46 For a discussion of traditional and modern tribal governments, see Sharon O'Brien, American Indian Tribal Governments (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989). The policy of "self- determination" was formalized and strengthened with passage of the Indian Self- De-termination and Education Assistance Act, Public Law 93- 638, Jan. 4, 1975, "an Act to provide maximum Indian participation in the Govern-ment and education of the Indian people; to provide for the full participation of Indian tribes in programs and services conducted by the Federal Government for Indians . . ." The Indian Self- Determination and Education Assistance Act Amendments of 1988, Public Law 100- 472, amended the original act by adding a new title, as follows: "Title IIIP Tribal Self- Governance Demonstration Project." In the first year, 20 tribes were authorized, for not more than five years, to plan, conduct, consolidate, and administer programs, services and functions authorized under previous acts, thus exerting considerable tribal control over federal Indian programs. The Indian Self- Determination Act Amendments of 1994, Public Law 103- 413, again amended the original act by adding "Title IVP Tribal Self- Governance," which made the demonstration project permanent (20 new tribes are selected each year to participate). 47 Charles Head, Self- Governance Coordinator, Cherokee Nation, Tahlequah, OK, personal communication, May 9, 1995. 48 For example, California now makes all state legislative informationP the Constitution, bills, laws, amendments, agendas, votes, etc.P available via an FTP server (leginfo. public. ca. gov) on the Internet. "California Legislative Information Now Online Without Cost," Board-watch, April/ May 1994, p. 78. 49 For example, the National Indian Policy Center (NIPC) maintains online information such as treaties on a George Washington University file server (Gopher and World Wide Web) whose Internet address is gwis. circ. gwu. edu. The successive menu choices to get to the NIPC are first, "Centers, Institutes, and Research at GWU," followed by "Centers and Institutes," and finally, "National Indian Policy Center." 73 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building | 67 Internet networking is becoming a critical com-ponent of governance and grassroots democra-cy. 50 Several federal Internet sitesP including the Library of Congress's "Thomas" 51 system, the Government Printing Office's "GPO Access," and two sites maintained by the House of Representa-tives 52 Pcarry key federal documents such as the Federal Register, U. S. Code, Code of Federal Regulations, Congressional Record, and congres-sional bills. Many colleges, universities, and non-profit organizations maintain other Internet sites with useful free information related to gover-nance. For example, Project Vote Smart, a grass-roots democracy organization with 35,000 volun-teers, makes availableP by Internet and dial- in electronic bulletin boardsP the public statements and voting records of political candidates. 53 Native governments vary widely in their cur-rent use of computers and computer networking. A few tribes are already operating at levels of computerization comparable to that of the most advanced state or local governments. However, many tribes and villages would require consider-able improvements in technology and trainingP and, in many cases, a shift in perception about the role of computersP to make effective use of com-puter networking. The federal government, too, varies widely in its use of computers and comput-er networking, and in its plans to interconnect with state, local, and Native governments. 54 Many of the networking applications being ex- plored by federal agencies are relevant to Native governments. One use of computer networking is for grant application and monitoring, demonstrated by the National Science Foundation. Native govern-ments frequently apply for grants from the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Health Service, Admin-istration for Native Americans, and other agen-cies. A second application of computer network-ing is in contract negotiation and administration. As Native governments and community service-providers contract for federal monies for schools, health care, social services, and self- governance, computer networking can help minimize adminis-trative overhead and paperwork. Ongoing federal policies of self- determination and self- governance will likely necessitate in-creased cooperation between Native governments and federal agencies to develop information sys-tems that meet each partner's needs. For example, the Cherokee Nation, under a 1994 Memorandum of Understanding with the Department of the Inte-rior's Office of Self- Governance, developed the OSG Database, a financial information and re-porting system for the Tribal Self- Governance Demonstration Project. 55 Today, half of the gov-ernments participating in self- governance with the OSG have access to the system with a "1- 800" telephone number. Only authorized users have ac-cess. The cost of development was $135,000, including the initial hardware and software. With 50 For a discussion of citizen participation in government, and computer- assisted access to government, see Jim Warren, "How Citizens Can Pursue Practical, Potent, Grassroots Political ActionP Net- Based, Computer- Aided," Boardwatch, April/ May 1994, pp. 74- 78. 51 The Library of Congress makes legislative information, such as the full text of all versions of congressional bills and the Congressional Record (searchable by keywords or bill number), available on the Internet through Thomas, a World Wide Web site at http:// thomas. loc. gov/. 52 The House of Representatives' Gopher server can be reached at gopher. house. gov; and the World Wide Web server can be reached at http:// www. house. gov. 53 The Project Vote Smart Gopher server can be reached at gopher. neu. edu under the menu title Project Vote Smart. Alternatively, one can reach the Project Vote Smart Bulletin Board Service at 503- 737- 3777. 54 See OTA, Making Government Work: Electronic Delivery of Federal Services, op. cit., footnote 5. 55 See footnote 46. In 1994, the Department of the Interior's Office of Self- Governance (OSG) serviced 26 tribes in the lower 48 states, and 70 tribal and village governments in Alaska. In 1996, the OSG plans to deliver $200 million in funds to 45 tribes in the lower 48 states, and 130 tribal and village governments in Alaska. 74 68 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Top: Network control computers at the Oneida Nation's tribal headquatrters building in Oneida, New York. The Oneida Na-tion makes extensive use of computers to support tribal ad-ministration. Bottom: A portion of the fiberoptic telecommu- nications network that links tribal buildings and homes of the Oneida Nation. this system, OSG employees can concentrate more on timely delivery of funds and financial data integrity, rather than on time- consuming pa-per methods of fund reporting and financial ad-ministration. 56 The desire of many Native communities to take more responsibility for their own self- gover-nance, and the shift of functions from the federal (and sometimes state) government to tribal/ vil-lage governments, is increasing the impetus to use computers as an administrative and management tool. Moreover, Native governments, including many tribes and especially the Alaska Native re-gional and village corporations, carry out business and government functions that require specialized information systems. The use of computer net-working and videoconferencing for expressing views and reaching consensus may be problemat-ic for some Native groups with a tradition of face-to- face, consensual, deliberative decisionmaking. n Kiosks and Electronic Benefits Transfer Kiosks and electronic benefits transfer could be used, separately or in combination, to deliver in-formation and benefits to Native American com-munities. 57 This could substantially increase de-livery efficiencies in rural areas. In the more remote areas, kiosks could be collocated with a community communication center at a local school, health care facility, multiservice center, or tribal/ village government office. These kiosks could be designed to provide access to a wide range of information. They also could disburse specified monetary benefits for health and social services, either by placing credit on a smart card or by dispensing cash if the kiosk includes an au-tomated teller machine. TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACCESS FOR COMMUNITY- BUILDING Education, health care, economic development, environmental protection, and governance will each have a range of needs for telecommunica-tions infrastructure. Many of these community ap-plications can benefit from videoconferencing, computer networking, multimedia, and wireless 56 Arlene Brown, Financial Officer, Office of Self- Governance, Department of the Interior, personal communication, May 1995. 57 See OTA, Making Government Work: Electronic Delivery of Federal Services, op. cit., footnote 5. 75 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building | 69 technologies. However, for community- building, the telecommunications infrastructure must be both cost- effective and accessible. In many Native communities, this will require cost- sharing part-nerships combined with strategies to broaden ac-cess. Two promising possibilities for community-building are: 1) creating publicly accessible telecommunications technology centers affiliated with schools, health care centers, government of-fices, and the like; and 2) creating community computer networks. Community telecommunica-tions centers and community computer networks offer new solutions to contemporary social needs. Results of pilot tests and projects to date are gener-ally favorable, but further research and evaluation are necessary. n Community Telecommunications Centers Some highly leveraged opportunities for commu-nity telecommunications centers include the AIHEC network centers at the tribal colleges and Internet accessible computer terminals at K- 12 schools. Native educational institutions would need to look beyond their traditional role of serv-ing only enrolled students and assume anew role of serving the broader Native American commu-nity. Other possibilities include providing health care facilities, libraries, or cultural centers with public information terminals ardor Internet con-nectivity. Radio or TV stations with digital satel-lite uplinks and downlinks also could serve as telecommunications centers or gateways for data and video transmissions with other networks. For example, the American Indian Radio On Satellite program might work with Native American gov-ernments to help them utilize satellite links. Schools, hospitals, government agencies, radio stations, and other institutions in Native Ameri-can communities might also consider partnering with each other or becoming champions of a com-munity network. For example, the Sisseton- Wah- Top: Big Sky Telegraph is a community- based computer network headquartered at Western Montana College in Dillon, Montana. Big Sky is dedicated to empowerment of grassroots Americans- including Native Americans- through the use of computers and telecommunications. Bottom: Map showing teleconnections between Big Sky Telegraph and the contigu-ous states, Alaska, and Hawaii. peton Sioux Tribe Telecommunications Commit-tee is helping four entities a tribal community college, K- 12 tribal school, tribal government, and IHS local service unit- establish local area networks. Each local area network will be inter-connected to form a wide area network and con-nect with the Internet. 58 I I 58 Sisseton- Wahpeton Sioux Tribe Telecommunications Committee, "Telecommunications Project," unpublished paper, Agency Village, SD, n. d. 76 70 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Most community networks across the United States and Canada have taken a grassroots, bot-tom- up approach that emphasizes citizen empow-erment rather than institutional goals. However, many Native American communities may not have a critical mass to support a grassroots move-ment. As a consequence, a Native American gov-ernment or other institution may have to take a lead role. A community network owned or run by one or a few organizations, rather than a commu-nity- appointed board of directors or the equiva-lent, would need to ensure that the network re-mains true to community values and needs. Even a community- based board could lose touch if board members do not have diverse backgrounds and are unwilling to continually challenge the network to grow, develop, and engage the community. z Community Computer Networks Community computer networks, largely grass-roots efforts initiated by concerned community members, caught the attention of the mainstream in 1992. At about the same time, the Internet be-came popular with the media and the public, and the federal government put forth the concept of an information superhighway (also known as the Na-tional Information Infrastructure). 59 Examples of community networks include the Blacksburg Electronic Village 60 in Virginia; the Taos Tele-community in New Mexico; Big Sky Telegraph in Montana; 61 Prairienet in Illinois; and the Boulder Community Network in Colorado. 62 Networks such as Prairienet that subscribe to the National Public Telecomputing Network are trademarked Free- Nets TM and follow the model of the Cleve-land Free- Net. Other community networks are variously called public access networks, commu-nity computing, electronic bulletin board ser-vices, telecommunities, or televillages. Most are accessible through both public centers and home computers, and through the Internet. Activists and observers of community net-working stress that the basic concept of communi-ty networking is an ongoing cyclical process whereby community needs are discovered, solu-tions negotiated, changes made, and results evalu-ated for the next round. The basic goals are grass-roots empowerment; community- driven vision; developing local expertise; and providing content and services to meet local needs and constraints. The Morino Institute suggests several criteria crit-ical to the growth of current community networks and the establishment of future community net-works: 63  make positive social change the goal,  understand the needs and engage the efforts of the community,  build a strong and open technological base,  make information available that is relevant to and in the context of the community, 59 See Jay Weston, "Old Freedoms and New Technologies: The Evolution of Community Networking," Free Speech and Privacy in the Information Age Symposium, University of Waterloo, Canada (invited paper), Nov. 26, 1994, available by e- mail from jweston@ ccs. carleton. ca or through the Electronic Frontier Foundation World Wide Web site http:// www. eff. org/ pub/ Publications/; and Doug Schuler, "Community Net-works: Building a New Participatory Medium," Communications of the ACM, vol. 37, No. 1, January 1994. 60 For a description, see Rajiv Chandrasekaran, "In Virginia, a Virtual Community Tries Plugging Into Itself," The Washington Post, Apr. 11, 1995, pp. A1, A12. 61 See Frank Odasz, "Community Economic Development Networks: A Grassroots Leadership Challenge," Internet Research, vol. 4, No. 1, spring 1994. 62 For more information via e- mail write to webmaker@ bev. net for the Blacksburg Electronic Village, feedback@ laplaza. taos. nm. us for the Taos Telecommunity, info@ prairienet. org for Prairienet, and coordinator@ bcn. boulder. co. us for the Boulder Community Network. The World Wide Web home pages for these community networks are http:// www. bev. net, http:// laplaza. taos. nm. us, http:// www. prairienet. org, and http:// bcn. boulder. co. us. 63 The Morino Institute, "Assessment and Evolution of Community Networking," paper presented by Mario Morino at the Apple Confer-ence on Building Community Computing Networks, Cupertino, CA, May 5, 1994. 77 Chapter 3 Telecommunications Technology and Native American Community- Building 171 My friend, a Seneca scholar, once remembered that many people have a mental snapshot of native people taken 300 years ago, and they want to retain that image . . Perhaps we are approaching a time when everyday Americans want to become better Indians than the Indians themselves . . . Certainly I believe that ancient tribal cultures have important lessons to teach the rest of the world about the inter-connectedness of all living things and the fact that our very existence is dependent upon the natural world we are rapidly destroying Our languages are still strong, ceremonies that we have been con-ducting since the beginning of time are still being held, our governments are surviving, and most impor-tantly, we continue to exist as a distinct cultural group in the midst of the most powerful country in the world, Yet, we also must recognize that we face a daunting set of problems and issues continual threats to tribal sovereignty, low educational attainment levels, double- digit unemployment, many homes without basic amenities, and racism. To grapple with these problems in a forward- thinking, posi-tive way, we are beginning to look more and more to our own people, communities, and history for solu-tions, We have begun to trust our own thinking again. Wilma P. Mankiller, Principal Chief, Cherokee Nation SOURCE Reprinted from native American Programs, Department of Housing and Urban Development, Our Home: Giving Form to Traditional Values, Design Principles for Indian Housing (Washington, DC 1994) ensure broad- based access, champions of Native American community net-plan for growth, establish a sustaining econom- working might include Native technology acti-ic model, prepare for competition, and vists, community leaders, Native American gov-collaborate to form a powerful community ernments, community service providers, tribal computer network movement nationally. colleges and libraries, and local businesses. Na-The lessons learned from current efforts could tive American community networking needs to be be valuable for Native American communities, forward- thinking and contribute to community-each with its own cultural, social, economic, and building, and it also must be firmly rooted in Na-political needs that could be met, in part, by creat- tive cultures and values (see box 3- 6). 65 ing its own community network. 64 Possible 64 For a discussion of the opportunities and challenges of telecommunications for rural communities, including some Native American com-munities, see OTA, Making Government Work: Electronic Delivery of Federal Services, op. cit., footnote 5; and U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Rural America at the Crossroads: Networking for the Future, OTA- TCT- 471 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, April 1991). 65 For discussion of grassroots Native computer applications, see chapter 2; Patric Hedland, "Ancient Tales Online," Online Access, Summer 1992, pp. 8- 11; and Cynthia Denton, "The American Indian Share- Art Gallery," Whole Earth Review, summer 1991, pp. 36- 37. 78 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications Policy overeignty is the ability of a group of people (e. g., a tribe, village, town, or state) to control its own affairs, culture, and communities; sovereignty is essential to self- gover-nance. In the colonial era, what is now the United States was home to hundreds of indigenous groups with a variety of forms of self- government, organized primarily at the tribal or vil-lage level. Over the last 200 years, indigenous groups struggled to maintain their sovereignty. The established framework of federal Indian law recognizes tribal sovereignty, a federal trust responsi-bility for those tribal resources and powers ceded to or taken by the United States, and a commitment to tribal self- determination or self- control over programs and services vital to tribal well- be-ing. Federal Indian policy, as reflected in presidential statements and agency directives, applies this framework to the 550 federally recognized Indian tribesP including about 220 Alaska Native tribal or village governments (Indian, Aleut, or Eskimo). Federal policy on Native Hawaiians is more ambiguous. However, the historical parallels between Native Hawaiians, American In-dians, and Alaska Natives are significant and provide a basis for including Native Hawaiians within this framework. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has the pri-mary federal responsibility for regulation of telecommunications. The FCC does not have an Indian policy. So far as the Office of Technology Assessment can determine, the FCC has not applied the major principles of Indian law to federal telecommunications policy. Nor has the FCC applied federal Indian policy as enunci-ated by every President from Nixon through Clinton and by sever-al federal agencies. The reality is that the current federal (and state) telecommunications policy regime has developed without |73 79 74 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges consideration of Indian law and without a tribal telecommunications policy, and therefore has ef-fectively, if unintentionally, eroded and limited the sovereignty of tribes in this area. A basic ques-tion is the extent of tribal authority over telecom-munications on tribal lands (e. g., physical infra-structure) and in the air over tribal lands (e. g., frequency spectrum). Principles of Indian law and policy can be applied to telecommunications. However, "[ f] ederal telecommunications policy and regulation have developed continuously since 1934. Indian telecommunications policy cannot be written overnight; it must evolve." 1 HISTORICAL CONTEXT: AMERICAN INDIANS AND ALASKA NATIVES A fundamental issue is the sovereignty of Native Americans over their own affairs, cultures, liveli-hoods, lifestyles, and destinies. When Europeans first discovered and settled in North America, what is now the 48 contiguous states was the home of hundreds of indigenous Indian tribesP each with its own form of self- governance and with control over hunting, fishing, water, land, and oth-er resources vital to survival. Likewise, when the Russians, Europeans, and Euro- Americans ex-plored subarctic and arctic North America, what is now Alaska was the home of many indigenous Native (Aleut, Eskimo, and Indian) tribes. Simi-larly, when European explorers first discovered and settled in Hawaii, these islands were popu-lated by indigenous peoples with their own form of self- governance. The history of the United States is, in part, a struggle of indigenous peoples and governments trying to maintain their sovereignty in the face of population pressures and expanding national and state governments. The experience of American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians is similar in that all had preexisting forms of govern-ment, typically at the tribal or village level; and all had significant control over their own land, re-sources, and cultural practices. Their experience varied, however, as the United States expanded westward and southward. The most immediate conflict was with Indian tribes in the contiguous 48 states. Initially, the United States treated the tribes as independent sovereign entities, under United States protector-ate, but having the full rights and powers of sepa-rate nations. U. S.- Indian treaties of this era largely stipulated terms and conditions of trade, com-merce, travel, and military alliance, as would be typical of relationships between sovereign na-tions. In the early 1800s, however, U. S. policy changed, formalized in the Indian Removal Act of 1830, to one of removing eastern Indians to areas generally west of the Mississippi River in order to accommodate the westward movement of settlers from the east coast. Tribes were treated as so-called domestic dependent nations, and the United States assumed a trust relationship with Indians in exchange for Indian land. Treaties of this period generally provided monetary and other com-pensation to Indians and guarantees against the taking of remaining Indian lands. In the mid to late 1800s, U. S. policy shifted again under pressure from settlers, immigrants, and fortune seekers moving into the Great Plains, Rocky Mountains, Pacific Northwest, and California. During this time, the United States moved many Indians onto reservations, and forced or coerced tribes to agree to reservation treaties in return for health, educa-tion, and financial support. From the late 1870s to early 1930s, U. S. policy encouraged assimilation of Indians into the majority society. 2 The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 marked the next change in U. S. policy, which once again emphasized Indian self- government and a re-newed attention to the U. S. trust relationship with Indians and treatment of tribes as quasi- sovereign entities. This policy lasted until the early 1950s, 1 James A. Casey, Esq., Fletcher, Heald & Hildreth, Rosslyn, Virginia, personal communication, Apr. 27, 1995. 2 See, e. g., Alice B. Kehoe, North American Indians: A Comprehensive Account (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992); and Vine De-Loria, Jr., American Indian Policy in the Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985). 80 Chapter 4 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications Policy when efforts were made to terminate tribes and U. S.- tribal relationships and encourage Indians to relocate to urban areas. 3 The modem era of U. S. policy began in the mid- 1960s with renewed emphasis on Indian and tribal self- determination and on government- to-government relationships between tribes and the United States, and reaffirmation of the U. S. trust responsibilities. Key milestones in modem U. S. Indian policy include the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968, Indian Self- Determination and Educa-tion Act of 1975, Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978, and Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978. 4 These acts, collectively, were intended to help restore Indian rights as indigenous peoples, including the right to establish and maintain their own forms of self- government. >From 1776 through 1870, the United States ne-gotiated, and the U. S. Senate ratified, 370 treaties with Indian tribes. 5 The federal government cur-rently recognizes about 330 tribes; state govern-ments recognize about another 60; and perhaps 100 tribes are petitioning for federal recognition. 6 Recognition brings with it acknowledgment of a formal government- to- government relationship, eligibility for various federal services, and oppor-tunity to establish a trust for land and resources. Tribes vary widely in their populations, geograph-ic size, cultural traditions, economic and natural resources, definition and conditions of member-ship, and form of government. Most tribes have several hundred to a few thousand members; only a few have more than 10,000 members (e. g., the Navajo Nation, Oglala Sioux, and San Carlos Apache). 7 The federal government also recognizes 220 Native villages in Alaska. The Alaska Native his-tory differs from the American Indians in that 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. | 75 Top: Standard government- issue sign at the western bound-ary of the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation, state highway 5, North Dakota Bottom: On the other side of the highway, a welcome sign designed and built by the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians most Alaskan indigenous peoples did not sign treaties with the United States, and many have re-mained on their traditional lands until the present time. The large, remote expanses of Alaskan wil-derness helped to buffer pressures from settlers. The interests or conditions of Alaska Natives 5 Jack Utter, American Indians: Answers tO Today's Questions (Lake Ann, MI: National Woodlands Publishing Co. 1993), esp. pp. 49- 50. 6 Arlene Hirschfelder and Martha Kreip de Montano, The Native American Almanac: A Portrait of Native America Today (New York, NY: Prentice Hall, 1993), see esp. pp. 237- 272, appendix I, "Native American Tribes by State." 7 Veronica E. Tiller (cd.), Discover Indian Reservations USA (Denver, CO: Council of Energy Resource Tribes, 1992). 81 76 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges . Top: The "Eskimo Building" houses Alaska Native companies and the u. S. Postal Service office in Kotzebue, Alaska. Note the mailbox at the right. Bottom: Communication lifelines for remote Eskimo villages include the U. S. Postal Service via airplane and telecommunications via satellite. received little attention for over a century, from the time of Russian explorations, to the 1867 sale of Alaska to the United States and the establish-ment of the Territory of Alaska in 1912, to Alaska statehood in 1958. The formal recognition of Alaska Native villages as governing entities re-sulted from pressures to: 1) establish Native terri-tories within State of Alaska public lands, 2) re-solve disputes over land- title claims that were blocking oil- field development, and 3) respond to a nascent Native rights movement represented by the Alaska Federation of Natives. The Federation played a key role in negotiations leading to enact-ment of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. The act settled land claims in return for monetary compensation and the establishment of 12 regional Native corporations and about 200 in-dividual Native village governments. 8 The current Native corporation and village structure includes: 9 n n n n n n n n n n n n n Ahtna, Inc. (with two Athabascan Native vil-lages); Aleut Corp. (with 13 Aleut Native villages); Annette Island Reserve (including the Tsim-shian Tribe and Metlakatla Indian Community Council); Arctic Slope Regional Corp. (with five Eskimo Native villages); Bering Straits Native Corp. (with 16 Eskimo villages); Bristol Bay Native Corp. (with 24 Eskimo and Aleut villages); Calista Corp. (44 Eskimo and Athabascan vil-lages); Chugach Natives, Inc. (four Aleut and Atha-bascan villages); Cook Inlet Region, Inc. (three Athabascan vil-lages); Doyon, Ltd. (32 Athabascan and Eskimo vil-lages); Koniag, Inc. (seven Aleut villages); NANA Regional Corp. (10 Eskimo villages); and Sealaska Corp. (11 Tlingit and Haida villages). Alaska villages always have been and continue to be very small a few hundred to a few thousand persons. The majority of the approximately 80,000 Alaska Natives (Eskimos, Aleuts, and In-dians) live in these rural villages. In contrast, about 35 percent of the roughly 1.9 million In-dians in the contiguous 48 states live on Native land (reservations, rancherias, and pueblos); about 15 percent live in rural areas near Native 8 Kehoe, North American Indians, op. cit., footnote 2, esp. ch. 9, pp. 480- 563, "The Arctic and Subarctic." 9 Hirschfelder and Kreipe de Montano, op. cit., footnote 6, pp. 238- 240. 82 Chapter 4 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications PoIicy | 77 land; and the remaining 50 percent live in metro-politian areas. 10 The vast majority of 225,000 Na-tive Hawaiians ll do not live in separately identi-fied Native communities; only a few thousand live - on Native lands, although many more live in small, rural towns on the various Hawaiian Is-lands. HISTORICAL CONTEXT: NATIVE HAWAIIANS Unlike tribal reservations and Alaska Native vil-lages, Native Hawaiians do not have tribal lands or tribal governments. Those with 50 percent or more Hawaiian blood can apply to live on Ha-waiian homelands. Native Hawaiians live throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Those Hawaiian communities with significant Native populations are not recognized or organized as self- governing Native communities per se, and do not have a sta-tus equivalent to Indian reservations or Alaska Native villages. Most Native Hawaiians live in ci-ties and towns organized under Hawaii's state and county governments. Also, Native Hawaiian groups, unlike many Indian tribes, do not have treaty relationships with the United States that un-derpin the formalized federal trust responsibility for Indians. And federal Indian policy, as enunci-ated by Presidents Nixon through Clinton and by several federal agencies, does not explicitly in-clude Native Hawaiians. These policies are large-ly framed in terms of federally recognized tribes (including Alaska Native tribes and villages) .12 A deeper analysis indicates, however, that the many parallels between Native Hawaiian and American Indian history provide a basis for defin-ing a form of federal trust responsibility for Native Hawaiians as well. Historical accounts document the exploitation and manipulation of Native Ha-waiians by European and American business and military interests since the time of Captain James 10 U. S. Bureau of the Census, 1990, cited in ibid., pp. 36- 43. Top: Pololu Valley and Kohala Mountains meet the sea on the Big Island, Hawaii, typical of scenic, remote areas of the Ha- waiian Islands. Bottom: The Kohala Mission School, like most small rural schools in Hawaii, is located on a coastal road along which run telephone, cable 71/ and electrical power lines thus opening up at least the Possibility of enhanced educational telecommunications applications. 11 Defined as any individual who is a descendent of indigenous peoples who, prior to 1778, lived in the area that is now the State of Hawaii. 12 Ibid. 83 78 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Cook's arrival on Hawaiian shores in 1778. 13 The 1893 annexation of Hawaii as a U. S. territory, rati-fied in 1898, was accomplished through coercion, misrepresentation, and without the willing con-sent of Native Hawaiians. 14 U. S. President Grov-er Cleveland concluded that there was U. S. com-plicity in the illegal overthrow of the Native Hawaiian government, but he was unable to change the course of events. 15 Recognition of a federal responsibility for Na-tive Hawaiians was reflected in the congressional joint resolution of 1898 and was amplified in the 1900 legislation formally establishing the territo-rial government of Hawaii. The 1898 resolution ceded absolute title for Hawaiian public lands to the United States, but provided that all revenue or proceeds from such land, except as may be used by the United States for civil or military purpose or by local governments, "shall be used solely for the benefit of the inhabitants of the Hawaiian Islands for educational and other public purposes." 16 In 1921, Congress enacted the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act. This act authorized that about 188,000 acres of public land under the commis-sion's jurisdiction be leased to Native Hawaiians for 99 years at a nominal fee. Native Hawaiian ad-vocates are critical of both the intent and imple-mentation of this act, which, nonetheless, re-flected some measure of congressional concern and responsibility for the deteriorating socioeco-nomic conditions of Native Hawaiians. 17 The federal interest in and responsibility for Native Hawaiians was further reinforced in 1959 when Hawaii was admitted as a state, under the Admissions Act. This act returned most ceded lands to the state, but requires the state to hold all ceded lands: 18 1. as a public trust for the support of public schools and other public educational institu-tions, 2. for the betterment of the conditions of Native Hawaiians, 3. for the development of farm and home owner-ship on as widespread a basis as possible, 4. for the making of public improvements, and 5. for the provision of lands for public use. Most importantly, the act states that use of these landsP and proceeds and income therefromP shall be only for the five purposes, "and their use for any other object shall constitute a breach of trust for which suit may be brought by the United States." 19 A 1978 Hawaiian constitutional con-vention amended the state constitution to estab-lish a State Office of Hawaiian Affairs to adminis-ter public land trust funds for the betterment of Native Hawaiians and carry out various other functions on behalf of all Hawaiians. 20 Since statehood, Congress has enacted or amended several statutes that establish a federal responsibility for various social, health, educa-tional, and training programs serving Native Ha-13 See, e. g., Michael Dougherty, To Steal a Kingdom: Probing Hawaiian History (Waimanalo, HI: Island Style Press, 1992); and Richard A. Wisniewski, The Rise and Fall of the Hawaiian Kingdom (Honolulu, HI: Pacific Basin Enterprises, 1979). 14 Ibid.; and Joyce Ahuna- Kaaiai (ed.), He Alo A He AloP Face To Face: Hawaiian Voices on Sovereignty (Honolulu, HI: American Friends Service Committee, 1993). 15 Michael Kioni Dudley and Keoni Kealoha Agard, A Hawaiian Nation II: A Call for Hawaiian Sovereignty (Honolulu, HI: Na Kane O Ka Malo Press, 1990). 16 Melody Kapilialoha MacKenzie (ed.), Native Hawaiian Rights Handbook (Honolulu, HI: Native Hawaiian Legal Corp., 1991), p. 15. 17 Ibid. 18 Admissions Act of Mar. 18, 1959, Public Law 86- 3. 19 Ibid. 20 Hawaii State Constitution, Article XII, Sections 4- 6. Also see MacKenzie, op. cit., footnote 16, pp. 19- 20. Note that for purposes of the Native Hawaiian Homes Act and the Admissions Act, and therefore the Hawaiian Constitution, Native Hawaiian is defined as someone with 50 percent or more Hawaiian blood. Hawaiian is defined as someone with any quantum of Hawaiian blood. 84 Chapter 4 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications Policy | 79 waiians. In some cases, Congress has granted broad authority to departmental heads to provide funding to Native Hawaiians or organizations di-rectly representing Native Hawaiians; in other instances, Congress has specified a funding amount or stipulated a percentage budget set-aside for Native Hawaiians. 21 In enacting the Na-tive Hawaiian Health Care Act of 1988, for exam-ple, Congress established a clear federal role and responsibility for helping improve the overall health conditions of Native Hawaiians, and a com-mitment to the heavy involvement of Native Ha-waiians in developing their own health care plan and a network of community health clinics. 22 In 1993, Congress enacted a joint resolution that apologized to Native Hawaiians for the U. S. role in the illegal 1883 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. 23 In sum, there are significant historical and policy parallels between Native Hawaiians and American Indians and Alaska Natives. 24 The fed-eral responsibility for the overall well- being and economic livelihood of Native Hawaiians could be reasonably construed to extend to the realm of telecommunicationsP as a key part of the infra-structure needed to deliver health and educational services to Native Americans and provide them with training and career opportunities. 25 The exer-cise of a federal responsibility for Native Ha-waiian telecommunications would differ because there are, at present, no formally recognized or constituted Native Hawaiian governments similar to Indian tribes and Alaska Native villages. This might change in the future, however, as the Native Hawaiian sovereignty movement matures. 26 Na-tive Hawaiian activists are asserting Native rights in such areas as land, water, fishing, trail and shoreline access, adoption, and religion. 27 Native Hawaiian organizations and advocacy groups are increasingly aware that telecommu-nications and computer technologies offer signifi-cant leverage for improving the well- being and in-dependence of Native HawaiiansP whether within the current state and county forms of gov-ernment or some alternative. The State of Hawaii provides a variety of telecommunications services to all Hawaiians, including Native Hawaiians. Ex-amples of these services include: 1) Hawaii Inter-active Television System (HITS), a two- way vi-deoconferencing and distance- learning network connecting the University of Hawaii campuses at Manoa and Hilo, three community colleges (Maui, Kauai, and Kapiolani), and the public tele-vision station KHET; 2) Hawaii Wide Area Inte-grated Information Access Network (HA-WAIIAN), a digital microwave system that can carry data, voice, radio, and compressed digital video signals between various educational and government locations on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, Maui, and the Big Island; and 3) Ha-waii FYI, a videotext service that provides access to educational and government information, oper-ated by the Hawaiian Information Network Cor-poration (Hawaii Inc.)P a public corporation es-21 MacKenzie, op. cit., footnote 16, pp. 294- 303. 22 Public Law 100- 690. 23 S. J. Res. 19, a joint resolution to acknowledge the 100th anniversary of the Jan. 17, 1893, overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and to offer an apology to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, 103d Congress, 1st session, enacted as Public Law 103- 150, Nov. 23, 1993, and accompanying report, U. S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Indian Affairs, Senate Rep. 103- 126, Aug. 6, 1993; reprinted in Richard J. Scudder (ed.), The Apology to Native Hawaiians (Kapolei, HI: Ka'imi Pono Press, 1994). 24 Also see, e. g., Linda S. Parker, Native American Estate: The Struggle Over Indian and Hawaiian Lands (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1989). 25 The definition of Native Hawaiian for determining program eligibility is complicated because of the integration of Native Hawaiians into the general population and differing views on blood quantum or other standards that should apply. 26 See Dudley and Agard, op. cit., footnote 15. 27 See MacKenzie, op. cit., footnote 16. 85 80 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Top: University of Hawaii at Hilo videoconferencing room- a standard set- up for the Hawaii Interactive Television System, a distance Iearning network connecting the University of Hawaii campuses and communitty colleges. Bottom: Split screen capability allows videoconferencing participants to view the instructor and students at one or more island locations. tablished to develop the Hawaiian information industry. 28 Notwithstanding these noteworthy programs, grassroots Native Hawaiian groups are concerned that "Native Hawaiian peoples are in danger of being left behind in the telecommunica-tions age." 29 INDIAN LAW AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS 30 Central principles of federal Indian law and policy (as evidenced by statutes, treaties, executive policy, and judicial opinions) include the federal trust responsibility, tribal sovereignty, and tribal self- determination. 31 These principles evolved over centuries, and have been clarified and strengthened in recent de-cades in ways that Indians hope will preclude a re-turn to earlier federal policies that at times sup-ported the: 1) removal of Indians from tribal lands through treaties that were broken or unilaterally abrogated by the United States; 2) outright taking of Indian lands through fraud, deceit, and military force; 3) assimilation of Indians into mainstream American life by changing or suppressing Native customs, dress, language, religion, and culture; 4) forced removal of Indian children from their tribal communities to remote boarding schools; and 5) termination of the federally recognized sta-tus of tribes as a way to reduce federal responsibil-ity, move land out of trust status, further integrate Indians into American society, and relocate In-dians from reservations to major cities and metro-politan areas. 32 28 David Lassner, University of Hawaii at Manoa, "Educational Telecommunications in Hawaii," memo dated April 1994. 29 Jim Hunt, Honokaa High School, Honokaa, HI, "Native Hawaiian Telecommunications Network," n. d. 30 This section is based on research and analysis conducted for OTA by Karen Funk and Sandra Ferguson, Esq., Hobbs, Straus, Dean & Walker, Washington, DC. 31 See, e. g., Francis Paul Prucha (ed.), Documents of United States Indian Policy ( Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1990): DeLo-na, op. cit., footnote 2; Fremont J. Lyden and Lyman H. Legters (eds.), Native Americans and Public Policy (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pitts-burgh press, 1992); Stephen Comely, The Return of the Native: American Indian Political Resurgence (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1988); Hirschfelder and Kreipe de Montano, op. cit., footnote 6. 32 See Utter, American Indians, op. cit., footnote 5, esp. pp. 241- 262, "A Summary History of United States Indian Policy"; and generally Kehoe, North American Indians, op. cit., footnote 2; Donald L. Parman, Indians and the American West in the Twentieth Century (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994); and Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian (New York, NY: Facts on File, 1985). 86 Chapter 4 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications Policy | 81 The essence of the federal trust responsibility is to ensure the survival of Indian communities. Un-der the trust responsibility, Indians possess rights as a group, in addition to rights as individuals. The - unique status of Indian tribes is based on the his-torical relationship between tribes and the federal government. 33 The federal trust responsibility in-cludes serving as trustee of tribal lands and natural and financial resources, and providing services necessary to the health and welfare of Indian tribes. 34 A continuing challenge is updating the scope and definition of the trust responsibility to reflect modem life. In original treaties, for example, the federal government often promised to provide teachers, doctors, and annuities (in the form of food and supplies) to tribes in return for cession of tribal lands. 35 If the trust responsibility is to have meaning, it must keep pace with changing social and economic realities. This adjustment has been made in areas such as health, education, and land and resource management as tribes and the rele-vant federal agencies have gained experience as partners in the government- to- government rela-tiship. 36 Including telecommunications within the trust responsibility would seem a logical next step because ensuring adequate telecommunica-tions services and infrastructure is important to the well- being and survival of tribes. Tribal sovereignty is, likewise, along- standing principle of Indian law. The concept of tribal sovereignty dates back to legal precedents estab-lished by the European colonists in their relations with tribes. European nations entered into at least Top: The Hawaii Information Network Corporation operates Hawaii FYI, a computer service that provides public access to educational and government information. Bottom: In partner-ship with the Polynesian Voyaging Society and others, Hawaii FYl provided reformation on the voyage of the seagoing ca-noe Hokulea and background materials on voyaging tradi-tions, canoe- building, navigation, and the like. 33 Morton v. Mancari, 417 U. S. 535 (1974). See generally Sharon O'Brien, American Indian Tribal Governments (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989). 34 See Frank Pommersheim, "Tribal- State Relations: Hope for the Future," South Dakota Law Review, Vol.. 36, 1991, pp. 239,245. 35 Ibid. 36 See generally Dean B. Suagee, "Self~ determination for Indigenous Peoples at the Dawn of the Solar Age," University of Michigan Jour-nal of Law, vol. 25, 1992, pp. 701- 712. 87 82 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges 175 treaties with Indian tribes before 1776, and, as noted earlier, the U. S. government negotiated and ratified 370 Indian treaties. The U. S. Constitution placed Indian tribes on a par with foreign nations in granting Congress the power to regulate com-merce. 37 The basic governmental power of tribes is not delegated by Congress; rather it is inherent and can only be abrogated if Congress expresses a clear intent to do so. Tribes possess "inherent powers of limited sovereignty which ha[ ve] never been extinguished." 38 Indian tribes are distinct from both states and foreign nations. An early seminal Supreme Court case described tribes as "domestic dependent sovereigns." 39 While this terminology is still used, 40 "limited sovereignty" more accurately describes the governmental au-thority of tribes. Within their reservations, tribes generally re-tain all powers other than those given up in trea-ties, taken away by an act of Congress, or taken away through implied divestiture. 41 Tribes have the authority to govern their own internal affairs and to exercise civil regulatory jurisdiction within reservation boundaries. In sum, tribes have juris-diction over a wide range of activities on Indian lands, although the federal government frequently has concurrent jurisdiction. Thus, it would appear that tribes could legally assert authority over tele-communications on Indian lands. Self- determination is an inherent part of sover-eignty, and has become a cornerstone of federal Indian policy reflected in statutes and presidential statements. Congress has enacted legislation to assist the tribes in their efforts to achieve econom-ic and governmental self- determination. The In-dian Reorganization Act of 1934 was intended to strengthen tribal governments. And the Indian Self- Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, as amended, provided tribes with the right to take over programs administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and Indian Health Service (IHS) by entering into self- determination contracts or self- governance compacts. 42 The Self- Determination Act applies not only to feder-ally recognized tribes in the contiguous 48 states, but to Alaska Native villages (Indian, Eskimo, and Aleut) or regional or village corporations de-fined in or established under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. 43 There are cur-rently 330 federally recognized tribes in the con-tiguous 48 states and 220 federally recognized Na-tive villages in Alaska (including both villages and regional organizations). 44 Telecommunications is not a primary or major function of the BIA and IHS. As these agencies 37 U. S. Constitution, Article I, section 8, Sept. 17, 1787. 38 See David H. Getches, Charles F. Wilkinson, and R. Williams, Federal Indian Law, 3rd Ed. (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1993). Also see United States v. Wheeler, 435 U. S. 313, 322- 323 (1978). 39 See Pommershein, op. cit., footnote 34, p. 244 (citing Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U. S. (5 Pet.) 1, 17 (1931)). 40 Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Citizen Band Potawatami Indian Tribe, 11 S. Ct. 905, 909 (1991). 41 Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe, 435 U. S. 191, 201- 11 (1978). According to the Court in Oliphant, tribes had been implicitly divested of their inherent sovereignty to exercise criminal jurisdiction over non- Indians. 42 25 U. S. C. Subsec. 13a, 450- 450n, 455- 458e; 42 U. S. C. Sec. 2004b (1988). 43 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971, U. S. Stat. 85: 688 et seq. The act was intended to resolve long- standing land claims by Native groups. The act allowed Native Americans to retain ownership of about 44 million acres of land, and compensated them for lands pre-viously taken or given up under terms of the act. Federal and state buyout funds were used to capitalize Native regional and village corporations. 44 The U. S. Department of the Interior's list of federally recognized tribes includes 220 tribes in Alaska. For Alaska, use of the term tribe is somewhat misleading because of the inclusion of Alaska Native villages and regional organizations recognized as governing bodies, as well as American Indian tribes indigenous to Alaska. On occasion, the OTA has used the term village because the vast majority of federally recognized tribes in Alaska are actually Alaska Native villages. By the 1930s, the legal status of Alaska Natives had been generally equated to that of Ameri-can Indians. See Felix S. Cohen, U. S. Department of the Interior, Handbook of Federal Indian Law (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1941, reprinted by William S. Hein Co., 1988), esp. pp. 404- 406. 88 Chapter 4 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications Policy | 83 Top: The Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes maintain a modern tribal headquarters complex on the Flathead Indian Reservation in Pablo, Montana. Bottom: Salish- Kootenai Trib-al College building in the foreground; Mission Mountains in the background. The college brings computers and telecom- munications to students from this scenic reservation located in northwestern Montana. get more involved in distance learning, telemedi-cine, geographic information systems, and other telecommunications- related activities, however, tribes could seek self- determination in this area as well. The principle of tribal self- determination also could be extended to other federal agencies that have major telecommunications responsibili-ties. In sum, telecommunications could be included within the basic framework of federal trust re-sponsibility, tribal sovereignty, and tribal self- de-termination. The historical context and evolution of federal Indian law and policy provide a strong conceptual basis for doing so. FEDERAL INDIAN POLICY POTENTIALLY APPLICABLE TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS* There are no current presidential or agencywide policies that specifically address Indian telecom-munications. However, presidential and agency policies do provide a framework that could be ap-plied. Presidential policy applies to all federally recognized tribes and Alaska Native villages; some agency policies extend to Native Hawaiian groups and state- recognized tribes as well. n Presidential Policies On July 8, 1970, President Nixon issued a policy that reaffirmed the unique status of Indian tribes and the tribal- federal relationship based on "sol-emn obligations entered into by the United States Government." President Nixon stated that: 46 We must assure the Indian that he can assume control of his life without being separated invol-untarily from the tribal group. And we must make it clear that Indians can become indepen-dent of federal control without being cut off from federal concern and support. 45 This section is based on research analysis prepared for OTA by Karen Funk and Sandra Ferguson, Esq., Hobbs, Straus, Dean & Walk-ker, Washington, DC. 46 President Richard Nixon, Statement to the Congress of the United States, The White H Ouse, July 9, 1970. 89 84 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges President Nixon proposed legislation to allow tribes to contract with federal agencies to adminis-ter programs, and to provide federal funding for Indian educational programs directly to tribes to administer. These initiatives resulted in the land-mark Indian Self- Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 noted earlier. In 1983, President Reagan issued his Indian policy statement, which declared: 47 Our policy is to reaffirm dealing with Indian tribes on a government- to- government basis and to pursue the policy of self- government for In-dian tribes without threatening termination. In support of our policy, we shall continue to fulfill the federal trust responsibility for the physical and financial resources we hold in trust for the tribes and their members. In 1991, President Bush reaffirmed the Reagan policy as the cornerstone of the Bush position on Indian affairs, and stated that: 48 This government- to- government relation-ship is the result of sovereign and independent tribal governments being incorporated into the fabric of our Nation, of Indian tribes becoming what our courts have come to refer as quasi- sov-ereign domestic dependent nations. Over the years this relationship has flourished, grown, and evolved into a vibrant partnership in which 500 tribal governments stand shoulder to shoul-der with other governmental units that form our Republic. In 1994, President Clinton articulated his In-dian policy in a meeting with tribal leaders: 49 Today I re- affirm our commitment to self- de-termination for tribal governments. Today I pledge to fulfill the trust obligations of the feder-al government. Today I vote to honor and re-spect tribal sovereignty based upon our unique historical relationship. President Clinton also issued a memorandum to the heads of all executive departments and agencies directing them to: 1) ensure that each de-partment or agency is operating in a manner con-sistent with government- to- government relation-ships with tribes, 2) consult with tribal governments before taking action that will affect Indian tribes, 3) evaluate departmental or agency programs regarding impact on tribes, and 4) re-move any procedural impediments to working di-rectly and effectively with tribes on matters that affect trust property or tribal government rights. 50 Some federal departments and agencies have issued Indian policy statements, but not those agencies or agency units that have primary re-sponsibility for telecommunications. Presidential policy is, prima facie, applicable. z Federal Agency Policies Several federal agencies have issued formal In-dian policy statements that could serve as exam-ples for agencies with major telecommunications responsibilities. Agency policy statements uni-formly recognize the unique status of tribal gov-ernments and support tribal self- determination. 47 President Ronald Reagan, Statement by the President on Indian Policy, The White House, Jan. 24, 1983. 48 President George Bush, Indian Policy Statement, The White House, June 14, 1991. 49 President Bill Clinton, Indian Policy Statement, The White House, Apr. 29, 1994. 50 President Bill Clinton, "Government- to- Government Relations with Native American Tribal Governments," Memorandum of Apr. 29, 1994, Federal Register, vol. 59, No. 85, May 4, 1994, pp. 22951- 22952. 90 Chapter 4 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications Policy | 85 The Departments of the Interior, Energy, Agri-culture, Commerce, and Justice, as well as the En-vironmental Protection Agency (EPA), have com-prehensive formal policies on agency- tribal relationships. 51 Some other agencies have sub-ject- specific policies, for example, the National Park Service's policy to protect and preserve culturally- sensitive or sacred sites on Indian lands. 52 EPA's policy is illustrative of a comprehensive approach that could be applied to telecommunica-tions. EPA issued its first guidance on Indian policy in 1984. 53 The initial policy recognized tribal governments as sovereign entities with pri-mary responsibility for setting and enforcing envi-ronmental standards on Indian reservations, and the need for EPA to support tribal efforts to devel-op their own environmental regulatory pro-grams. 54 The policy also acknowledged federal responsibility for environmental enforcement on Indian lands in the absence of tribal programs. EPA further refined and enhanced its Indian policy in 1991 and 1994. 55 The thrust of EPA's policy is to strengthen the ability of tribal governments to develop and ad-minister environmental programs themselves and to work as partners, to the extent necessary, with state and federal environmental regulatory agen-cies. This approach would seem directly applica-ble to telecommunications. Key elements of EPA's approach to tribal rela-tionships include: 1. Issuance of a clear policy that explicitly recog-nizes tribal sovereignty and commits the agency to further the ability of tribal govern-ments to exercise self- determination. 2. Agency advocacy for legislative and regulatory changes that support the Indian policy. After the 1984 EPA policy was issued, and with EPA's and tribal support, Congress enacted amendments to treat tribes as states for certain 51 See, U. S. Department of the Interior, Memorandum from Ada E. Deer, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs to the Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, "Indian Fish and Wildlife Policy," June 23, 1994; U. S. Department of Energy, "American Indian Policy," July/ Au-gust 1994; U. S. Department of Agriculture, Departmental Regulation No. 1020- 6, "Policies on American Indians and Alaska Natives," Oct. 22, 1992; U. S. Department of Commerce, "American Indian and Alaska Native Policy of the U. S. Department of Commerce," Mar. 30, 1995; U. S. Department of Justice, Office of the Attorney General, "Department of Justice Policy on Indian Sovereignty and Government- to- Government Relations with Indian Tribes," June 1, 1995; U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Memorandum from Carol M. Browner, Administrator, to all employees on "EPA Indian Policy," Mar. 14, 1994. 52 See the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 as amended in 1980 and 1992 regarding the role of Indian tribes. The act, as amended, permits tribes, at their option, to assume any or all of the responsibilities normally carried out by state historic preservation officers, and to enter into contracts or cooperative agreements to administer federal historic preservation responsibilities on Indian lands. A tribe must have an histor-ic preservation plan approved by the Secretary of the Interior in order to assume these responsibilities. 53 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Memorandum from Alvin L. Alm, Deputy Administrator, "Indian Policy Implementation Guid-ance," Nov. 8, 1984. 54 Ibid. 55 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Memorandum from William K. Reilly, Administrator, "EPA/ State/ Tribal Relations," July 10, 1991, and Memorandum from Carol W. Browner, op. cit., footnote 51. 91 86 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Top: View of Yellowstone National Park from the northeast; Washburn Mountain Range in the distance. The National Park Service has responsibility for protecting Native American ceremonial, sacred, and burial sites on parklands. Bottom: View of Yellowstone River looking southeast near Tower June-tion, Wyoming. The Shoshoni and Crow Indians once lived and hunted in much of what is now northwestern Wyoming and Yellowstone National Park. purposes under the Safe Drinking Water Act; the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (also known as CERCLA or Superfund); the Clean Water Act; and the Clean Air Act. 56 EPA streamlined 3. 4. 5. the process by which tribes apply for funding and technical assistance. Provision of funding and technical assistance to tribal governments. EPA provides finding to tribes under general EPA authority as well as specific statutes. The Indian Environmental General Assistance Act of 1992 57 provides funding to tribes and tribal consortia for the planning and development of tribal environmental management capabilities. The Indian Regulatory Enhancement Act of 1990 58 authorizes the Administration for Na-tive Americans (in the Department of Health and Human Services) to provide grants to tribal governments for the development of tribal en-vironmental programs. EPA also provides a wide range of informational and technical as-sistance to tribal governments. Ongoing communications with tribal govern-ments. EPA has committed itself to listening and learning about tribal environmental needs, pro-viding environmental information and educa-tion for tribal officials and members, and in-volving tribal governments in EPA's planning and policymaking. EPA has established a Trib-al Operations Committee comprised of tribal representatives and EPA managers to help en-sure tribal input on decisions that may affect tribes. The Committee includes 18 tribal repre-sentatives and at least one EPA representative from each EPA region that includes federally recognized tribes. Establishment of a central agency office on In-dian affairs. In response to a recommendation from its Trib-al Operations Committee, EPA established, in 1994, a central office on tribal environmental 56 See Safe Drinking Act, 42 U. S. C. Sec. 300j- ll( a)( l) (1988); Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liabil-ity Act 42 U. S. C. Sec. 9626 (1988); Clean Water Act 33 U. S. C. Sec. 1377 (1988); and Clean Air Act, 42 U. S. C. Sec. 7601( d) (1988). 57 Public Law 102- 497, 106 Stat. 3258 (1992). 58 Public Law 101- 408, 104 Stat. 883 (1990). 92 Chapter 4 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications Policy I 87 affairs. The office oversees implementation of presidential and agency Indian policies and car-ries out other informational and coordination functions. It serves as a clearinghouse on tribal environmental information and programs; coordinates agencywide tribal training, educa-tion, and technical assistance programs; facili-tates communications with tribes on agency rulemaking, policymaking, and program im-plementation; and coordinates EPA's tribal ac-tivities with those of other federal agencies. In sum, the major elements of EPA's tribal policy and its implementation appear relevant and potentially transferable to other federal agencies, including those with major telecommunications responsibilities. FCC POLICIES ON MINORITIES 59 The Federal Communications Commission, an independent regulatory agency of the federal gov-ernment, has the primary federal responsibility for regulation of telecommunications. The FCC does not have an Indian policy that explicitly recog-nizes and treats tribes as governmental entities. It does, however, have a minority policy that, by ex-tending certain preferences to individuals through agency regulations, may incidentally benefit enti-ties owned by tribes or by Indian and Alaska Na-tive people. n FCC Broadcast Licensing In 1978, the FCC adopted a policy to promote the participation of minorities in the broadcast indus-try, largely through the provision of minority pref-erences in regulations governing licensing proce-dures for radio and television broadcast stations. 60 In 1982, Congress codified the FCC's minority policy and directed the agency to establish rules Top: Native American computer artwork displayed at the Little Big Horn College in Crow Agency, Montana. Bottom: Historical photos of Crow Indian chiefs. Computers and tele-communications can help reproduce and disseminate Indian history to younger generations. and procedures that give significant preference to minority applicants for licenses or construction permits. The intent was to increase the diversifica-tion of broadcasting ownership. 61 The policy appears to have had little effect on Native American broadcasting ownership. Na-59 This section is based on research and analysis conducted for OTA by Karen Funk and Sandra Ferguson, Esq., Hobbs, Straus, Dean & Walker, Washington, DC. 60 Federal Communications Commissimt, "Statement of Policy on Minority Ownership of Broadcasting Facilities," 68 FCC 2d 979, 980, n. 8 (1978), and "Commission Policy Regarding Advancement of Minority Ownership in Broadcasting," 92 FCC 2d 849,850 n. 1 (1982). 61 Communication Act Amendments of 1982,47 USC Sec. 309( i)( 3)( A) (1982). 93 88 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges tionwide, there are an estimated eight Native-owned low- power broadcast TV stations, and an estimated 26 Native- owned broadcast radio sta-tions. More broadly, the FCC minority ownership policy is under scrutiny due to allegations of abuse or unintended consequences of minority prefer-ences, and as part of the government- wide review of affirmative- action policies. Recently enacted legislation repeals tax incentives for minority-owned communications companies. 62 z FCC Spectrum Auction Policy In 1994, the FCC's spectrum auction policy ex-tended preferences to minorities and certain other disadvantaged individuals and entities. These preferences are intended to assist minorities in purchasing wireless telecommunications licenses (known as Personal Communication Systems or PCS) through the FCC's competitive bidding process. 63 FCC rules provide preferences to so-called designated entities that include small busi-nesses, rural telephone companies, and businesses owned by minorities or women. 64 The FCC auc-tion of the PCS spectrum licenses reserved for designated entities was challenged in the U. S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, but the complaint was withdrawn before the court could review the constitutionality and legality of the preferences provided to designated entities. Tribally owned and operated companies seek-ing PCS licenses could qualify as small busi-nesses and/ or rural telephone companies as well, if the tribal governments meet the financial quali- fications. 65 In this way, FCC policy can potential-ly benefit tribal governments that bid for PCS spectrum. Also, because Native Americans are in-cluded within the definition of "minority," tribally owned and operated companies are eligible for minority preferences (to the extent such prefer-ences continue to be available). z FCC Cellular Spectrum Lottery The Federal Communications Commission's PCS spectrum auction policy reflected, in part, the results of the cellular spectrum lottery. The FCC and Congress determined that the free allocation of spectrum through a lottery was inefficient, failed to take advantage of competition, and re-sulted in a loss of significant potential revenue to the federal government. Also, minority and small businesses, including tribally owned businesses, experienced various management and financial difficulties, thus the justification for giving pref-erences to "designated entities" in the PCS policy. At the time of the cellular lottery (November 1988), the Gila River Tribe of Arizona had nego-tiated to purchase US West's telephone infrastruc-ture serving the reservation. Gila River Telecom-munications, Inc. (GRTI), a tribally owned telephone company, sought a cellular license and, as the only provider serving the reservation, would have been the likely licensee. However, GRTI was not yet operating. To qualify for partici-pation in the lottery, GRTI installed telephone ser-vice to two residences on the reservation. Al-though GRTI was selected as the tentative 62 H. R. 831, Public Law 104- 7, Apr. 11, 1995. See Angele A. Gilroy, The Viacom Transaction and Beyond: The Federal Communications Commission Tax Certificate Program, 95- 319 SPR (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Mar. 2, 1995); and Jack Taylor, "Health Insurance for the Self- Employed: Restoration of the Deduction and Related Revenue- Raisers," Congressional Research Service, Issue Brief IB95032, Apr. 18, 1995. 63 The Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1993 added Sec. 309( j) to the Communications Act of 1934, which gave the FCC authority to use competitive bidding procedures to auction PCS frequency spectrum. 64 "Designated entities" are allowed to bid in a separate spectrum auction established especially for disadvantaged groups. FCC rules also provide the following to designated entities: bidding credits; installment payment options; and tax and investment benefits. 65 FCC rules exclude tribal assets and gross revenues, except for gaming revenues, in determining eligibility of tribally affiliated companies for "designated entity" status. 94 Chapter 4 Native American Sovereignty and Telecommunications Policy | 89 licensee, other telephone companies (including US West) challenged the selection on the grounds that GRTI was not art operating telephone compa-ny. The FCC encouraged a negotiated settlement. . The final agreement gave US West a minority partnership in the cellular license in return for fi-nancing the construction. 66 The Fort Mojave Tribe of Arizona also partici-pated in the cellular lottery and was selected as the tentative licensee for the reservation service area. A private telephone company challenged the re-sult, and asked the FCC to deny Fort Mojave's ap-plication. At the time, the Fort Mojave Tribe was planning to set up a phone company, but did not yet own or operate a company. The tribe argued that the FCC eligibility rules were either not appli-cable or should be waived on the basis of tribal sovereignty and federal laws and policy that en-courage tribal self- determination. The FCC ruled against the tribe, denying the request for a waiver and asserting that federal Indian policy was not determinative. 67 The Seminole Tribe of Florida tried a different strategy. The tribe had never owned or operated a telephone company and had not sought to pur-chase telephone infrastructure from the two non-tribally owned phone companies serving the res-ervation. The tribe decided to attempt to participate in the cellular lottery based on a claim of tribal jurisdiction over the reservation service area. At that point in time, the FCC had not yet ruled in the Fort Mojave case, and the FCC's views on this general topic were unknown. The lo-cal telephone companies were willing to negoti-ate. The FCC did not have to rule on the Seminole case because the tribe was able to negotiate minor-ity partnerships in the cellular licenses of both es-tablished phone companies. 68 66 The Gila River discussion is based on a site visit and meeting between the OTA contractor, Hobbs, Straus, Dean & Walker, and GRTI representatives. Top: State route 23 highway bridge crossing Lake Sakaka-wea on Fort Berthold Indian Reservation, North Dakota. View looking east from the Four Bears Casino and tribal administra- tion complex. Bottom: Fort Berthold tribal administration building. The Three Affiliated Tribes (Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan) are using casino revenues to help make infrastruc-ture improvements on the reservation- including computer and telecommunications upgrades. n Fundamental Question FCC policies have not, to date, worked very well or consistently for tribal governments. The funda-mental question for Native Americans, however, is not how well the FCC policy is working, but 67 The Fort Mojave discussion is based on an OTA contractor (Hobbs, Straus et al.) meeting with David Irwin, Esq., the attomey who handled the Fort Mojave case before the FCC. The tribe subsequently was successful in organizing and operating a tribal telephone company. 68 The seminole discussion is based on an OTA contractor (Hobbs, Straus, et al.) telephone interview with the tribal attorney. 95 90 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges whether the current policy is the appropriate FCC policy framework for tribal telecommunications. As far as OTA can determine, the FCC has not applied the major principles of Indian lawP feder-al trust responsibility, sovereignty, and self- deter-minationP to federal telecommunications policy. Nor has the FCC applied federal Indian policy as enunciated by every President from Nixon through Clinton and by several other federal agencies. The Clinton policy requires all federal agencies, not just those with major tribal responsi-bilities, to: 1) deal with tribes on a government- to-government basis; 2) carefully consider the im-plications of proposed actions for tribes; and 3) provide tribes with the opportunity to participate in agency activities. 69 Telecommunications can arguably be viewed, in the late 20th century, as an important resource for tribes and Native Americans generally, just as it is for many other segments of American society. Telecommunications, and especially the electro-magnetic frequency spectrum, could be viewed as another natural resource along with land, forests, water, and the like. Native American telecommu-nications policy is in its most formative stages. A fundamental question is the extent of tribal au-thority over telecommunicationsP both on the ground (e. g., physical infrastructure) and in the air over tribal lands (e. g., frequency spectrum). In-dian advocates believe that this authority is re-served for the tribes, as sovereign governments, and should be so recognized by the federal gov-ernment. If the federal government wishes to as-sume this authority, advocates believe, then it should do so explicitly with the understanding that telecommunications would become part of the federal trust responsibilityP in this sense, viewed no differently than lands and other natural resources ceded by tribes to the U. S. government over the last 200 years in return for monetary and other compensation. This compensation could be in the form of telecommunications infrastructure and services over which, according to the princi-ple of self- determination, tribes would have sig-nificant control. The reality is that the current fed-eral and state telecommunications policy regime has developed in the absence of tribal telecommu-nications policy and therefore has, unintentional-ly, eroded and limited the sovereignty of tribes in this area. Native American telecommunications activists believe strongly that tribes must find their own role in telecommunications. In the words of James A. Casey, Indian telecommunications attorney: 70 The applications of federal Indian law to the telecommunications regulatory regime must be two- sided. The tribes must lead the way. The federal government will not be able to force the tribes into this area if they do not want to go, and the tribes that want to go will have their own ideas about the meaning of the word "sovereign-ty." Somewhere, the two sides will have to meet. The main federal focus should not be, at this time, to define the tribal role, but to encourage tribes to play a role. While this approach is ad hoc, it is the only approach that will insure that the issues are dealt with adequately. Federal telecommunications policy and regulation has developed continuously since 1934. Indian tele-communications policy cannot be written over-night; it must evolve. 69 President Clinton, Memorandum, op. cit., footnote 50. 70 Casey, op. cit., footnote 1. 96 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications he federal government does not have an overall policy framework or strategy for Native American telecommu-nications. Continuation of the policy status quo is likely to compromise the ability of Native Americans to realize the potential of telecommunications to enhance Native cultures, communities, and self- governance. The most highly leveraged options include those that strengthen telecommunications exper-tise and planning at both the tribal/ village/ community and inter-tribal/ national levels. Also, the high cost of rural telecommunica-tions, combined with the weak economies in many rural Native areas, means that coordinated, integrated approaches to telecom-munications infrastructure development are essential. This in-cludes options to aggregate both supply and demand in order to bring costs down and achieve economies of scale and scope. On the demand side, community communication centers and net-works warrant serious consideration. On the supply side, encour-aging the formation of Native- owned and -operated telecommu-nications companies; an upgrade of service by, and/ or partner-ships with, existing private telecommunications companies; and shared use of federal telecommunications systems can help. Telecommunications could be specifically addressed in pro-posals to: 1) consolidate federal programs such as block grants to the states and tribes; 2) reorganize federal agencies serving Native Americans; and 3) implement electronic delivery of services to and by Native governments and individual Native Americans. In-formation about federal telecommunications programs and acti-vities could be shared and accessed electronically by Native lead-ers, activists, planners, and technology experts via the Internet and other computer networks. This could help Native groups |91 97 92 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges become more active participants in developing policies on telecommunications, universal access, privacy, intellectual and cultural property rights, and other issues of concern to many Americans, including Native Americans. Future applications and policymaking would benefit from significant, continuing research and program evaluation on many of the topics discussed in this reportP the first by the federal government on Native Ameri-can telecommunications. The federal agencies with major responsibility for telecommunications policy, such as the Feder-al Communications Commission (FCC) and Na-tional Telecommunications and Information Ad-ministration (NTIA), have not applied Indian law to telecommunications policy. The federal agen-cies with lead responsibility for Native programs, such as the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), Indian Health Service (IHS), and Administration for Na-tive Americans (ANA), do not have a Native American telecommunications policy. These agencies do support some noteworthy telecommu-nications projects that benefit Native Americans. A Native American telecommunications policy framework could, for example, affirm that telecommunications is essential to ensuring Na-tive well- being and survival, and could include telecommunications infrastructure as part of a modern "information age" interpretation of the federal responsibility for Native well- being. The policy could afford flexibility to individual tribes, villages, and communities, recognizing that they will have differing levels of interest and capability in assuming telecommunications responsibilities. The policy could encourage Native governments and service providers that wish to assume self-direction and control of telecommunications in Native areas to do so. Agency- specific policies could address a wide range of programs that affect the viability of tribal/ village/ community telecom-munications activities and enterprises. These pro-grams include, for example: 1) Rural Utilities Ser-vice loans; 2) universal service funds; 3) FCC frequency spectrum allocations; 4) NTIA grants; 5) BIA educational technology and geographic in-formation systems support; and 6) IHS telemedi-cine and health information systems support. The policy could establish new mechanisms for inter-agency, tribal- federal, and tribal- state collabora-tion and coordination. For example, the joint fed-eral- state board on the universal service fund could be expanded to include tribal representa-tion. Key policy elements could be included in statutory guidance, such as amendments to exist-ing Native American and telecommunications laws, or a separate "Native American Telecommu-nications Act" or the equivalent. NEED FOR A POLICY FRAMEWORK A threshold policy question in any Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) study is whether policy actions beyond continuation of the status quo (usually not entirely static, however) warrant serious consideration. For this study, the answer seems straightfor-ward. Native American telecommunications policy and activities are clearly lagging behind both: 1) other areas of Native American policy (e. g., self- governance, education, social services, and health care); and 2) the telecommunications policy development and initiatives in the majority society. Native American telecommunications ac-tivities are increasing, and likely will continue to do so absent any special policy interventions. But the rate of change in the majority society has itself accelerated markedly in recent years, due in part to the current Administration's reinventing govern-ment and national information infrastructure ini- 98 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 93 tiatives, and more generally to the continuing transition of the United States into a post- indus-trial information economy and society. 1 Absent policy interventions, it is unlikely that - Native Americans will catch up with the majority society with respect to telecommunications, and they may fall further behind. This assumes even greater importance, given the potential benefits of telecommunications that may be deferred, dimini-shed, or foregone under the policy status quo. Even if the more optimistic visions of Native American telecommunications are not realized, achieving just an "average" result is likely to be highly leveraged because Native American tele-communications policy is very incomplete and underdeveloped. Neither the federal government nor the national tribal and Native American lead-ership has an overall policy strategy or framework for Native American telecommunications. Native Americans, as a group, are under con-siderable stress. They have significantly higher rates of unemployment, poverty, high school dropouts, alcoholism, cirrhosis, and suicide compared with national averages. The BIA esti-mates that unemployment on or near reservations averages about 50 percent (double the 1990 U. S. Census estimate of 25.7 percent using a narrower definition of unemployment). 2 Unemployment on some reservations is as high as 70 to 80 percent. American Indian and Alaska Native high school graduation rates are about 10 percent below the national averages, and college graduation rates are Top: Oahu, an island of contrasts. The majority of the island's population live in Honolulu, the state capitol of Hawaii, shown here looking southeast toward Diamond Head and the Pacific Ocean beyond. Bottom: Wide expanses of beaches and mountains reaching the sea are typical of rural Oahu and the neighbor islands where many Native Hawaiians live. View from Makapuu Beach looking northwest toward Waimanalo Bay, Kaiwa Ridge, and Ulupau Crater beyond. 1 See Vice President Gore, Creating a Government That Works Better & Costs Less: Report of the National Performance Review (Washing-ton, DC: U. S. Government Printing Offlce, Sept. 7, 1993); Information Infrastructure Task Force, "The National Information Infrastructure: Agenda for Action, '' National Telecommunications and Information Administration, Washington, DC, Sept. 15, 1993, and "National Informat-ion Infrastructure: Progress Report 1993 -1994," National Telecommunications and Information Administration, Washington, DC, Sept. 13, 1994; Emilio Gonzalez, Connecting the Nation: Classrooms, Libraries, and Health Care Organizations in the Information Age (Was! hington. DC: National Telecommunications and Information Administration, U. S. Department of Commerce, June 1995); and U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Making Government Work: Electronic Delivery of Federal Services, OTA- TCT- 578 (Washington, DC: U. S. Govern-ment Printing Office, September 1993). 2 See Indian and Native American Employment and Planning Coalition, "Will the Real Unemployment Rate in Indian Country Please Stand Up, '' Mar. 1, 1993, and "The Indian Labor Force: A Portrait in Numbers" May 1993. Also see George Russell, American Indian Digest: Facts About Today's American Indians, 1995 Edition (Phoenix, AZ: Thunderbird Enterprises, Inc., 1994). 99 94 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges about half the national averages. 3 The IHS reports that American Indians and Alaska Natives experi-ence mortality rates considerably above the rates for the entire U. S. populationP tuberculosis (520 percent higher than average), alcoholism (433 percent higher), diabetes mellitus (188 percent higher), accidents (166 percent higher), homicide (71 percent higher), and suicide (54 percent high-er). 4 The health conditions of Native Hawaiians are, likewise, considerably worse than those of the general population. This situation is attributed, in part, to serious erosion of Native culture, family and community traditions, and diet and exercise patterns over the last century. Native leaders and advocacy groups are in-creasingly addressing the well- being of their people from a systemwide perspective that takes into account how culture, family, community, life-style, and workstyle are interconnected. Within this community framework, telecommunications can be an important facilitator and, in some cases, a necessaryP although not by itself sufficientP prerequisite for improving the well- being of Na-tive Americans. 5 Native Americans who research or experiment with telecommunication technologies stress that they must be developed and deployed in ways that enhance Native culture and values. 6 Native Amer-icans historically have struggled to preserve and defend their cultures within the dominant, major-ity society. In recent decades, the advent of electronic communicationsP especially TV, film, videos, and popular musicP and the new electron-ic media of computers, software, and satellites present a formidable challenge. Because Native culture has been eroded in the past by the mass me-dia, some Native American leaders are under-standably cautious or even resistant to adopting new telecommunication technologies without first gaining confidence that technology applica-tions will be sensitive to and strengthen Native culture. The new media could, indeed, have ad-verse impacts on Native culture unless Native Americans have a central role in understanding and guiding their use and in developing program-ming and informational materials. 7 Telecommunications can play a multifaceted role in improving the overall well- being of Native communities. In the absence of policy interven-tions, however, much of this potential is likely to be lost or indefinitely deferred. And the opportu-nity for Native Americans to take control of their telecommunications destiny may be seriously compromised. If these opportunities are to be realized and the risks minimized, an overall policy framework or strategyP a package of initiatives and optionsP on Native American telecommunications is need-ed. No single policy option will address all Native American telecommunication needs. Many op-tions could be implemented or influenced in a va-riety of waysP not necessarily by any one person (or group), organization, or institution. 3 Ibid. 4 Indian Health Service, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Trends in Indian HealthP 1993 (Rockville, MD: Indian Health Service, 1993). Also see U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Indian Health Care, OTA- H- 290 (Washington, DC: U. S. Govern-ment Printing Office, April 1986), and Indian Adolescent Mental Health, OTA- H- 446 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, Jan-uary 1990). 5 For detailed discussion, see chapter 3. 6 See chapter 2. 7 See, e. g., George D. Baldwin, "American Indian Identity and Tribal Sovereignty in Cyberspace," paper prepared for the Workshop on Legal, Ethical, and Technological Aspects of Computer Network Use and Abuse," American Association for the Advancement of Science, Oct. 7- 9, 1994; Randy Ross, "Tribal Rights and Cultural Identity in Cyberspace," ArtPaper, vol. 12, No. 10, June 1993, p. 10; and George D. Bald-win, "Networking the Nations: Information Policy and the Emerging Network Marketplace," Journal of Navajo Education, vol. 9, No. 2, winter 1992, pp. 47- 53. 100 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications Top: Many Indian tribes of the Great Plains depended on buffalo for food and clothing; white settlers and loss of natural habitat reduced the buffalo herds to a few surviving in pro-tected areas, such as the Theodore Roosevelt National Park in North Dakota, shown here. Bottom: Buffalo grazing along the side of a scenic drive near Squaw Creek Campground, Theodore Roosevelt National Park. Among the many actors in Native American telecommunications are: n tribal, village, and community leaders and gov-ernments, = grassroots Native American advocates and ser-vice providers, I 95 n n n n n n a national Native American professional and ad-vocacy organizations, individual Native American telecommunica-tions specialists and activists, federal and state government agencies, private sector profit and nonprofit organiza-tions with an interest in Native Americans, communication and computer companies, and the U. S. Congress. OTA has identified eight major components to comprehensive policy framework on Native American telecommunications. Each component includes several policy options. The first four policy components emphasize a lead role for Na-tive groups and governments- the empowerment of Native Americans in telecommunications with the federal government in a supportive role. The second four policy components emphasize the need to rethink and refocus federal policy strategies to recognize and strengthen Native American telecommunications infrastructure and sovereignty. These require a major federal govern ment role, but with extensive Native American participation to ensure that Native values and per-spectives we understood and reflected in policy actions. EMPOWERING NATIVE AMERICAN TELECOMMUNICATIONS Tribal/ village/ community, federal agency, and congressional actions could focus on implement-ing these four essential components of an overall Native American telecommunications policy framework. n Grassroots Tribal/ Village/ Community Empowerment At the grassroots level, one key is developing lo-cal sources of telecommunications expertise and tribal/ village/ community telecommunications plans and visions. Native American communities are struggling to regain control over their lives and destinies. Telecommunications technology has the potential to accelerate and strengthen the drive for Native empowerment; if rooted in local exper-tise and control, it also can help reverse the histori- 101 96 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Top: Learning Resource Center at the Kauai Community Col- lege, located on the outskirts of Lihue, Kauai Island, Hawaii, and the focal point for educational technology on campus. Bottom: Kauai and other community colleges of the Universi-ty of Hawaii system bring videoconferencing and distance learning to many Native Hawaiian students. 8 For further discussion, see chapter 3. cal tendency of Native Americans to be subordi-nated to technologies and governing processes developed and controlled by the majority society. The role of these technologies in empowering Native Americans will be enhanced if Native communities develop their own technological un-derstanding, expertise, and leadership. Telecom-munication technologies offer many opportuni-ties for use in Native governance and service delivery, and in the administration of the various governmental functions (e. g., health, education, human and social services, transportation, re-source and environmental management, econom-ic development, and public safety) being assumed by many Native communities. 8 Native communities would benefit from hav-ing their own sources of telecommunications ex-pertise. Current or potential local sources of ex-pertise include: 1) tribal and community colleges (many are already using microcomputers and dis-tance learning to some degree); 2) tribal/ village/ community governments (most make some use of computers for administrative and financial pur-poses, while a few are implementing more ad-vanced applications); 9 3) K- 12 and health care staff familiar with telecommunications (e. g., for distance learning or telemedicine); 4) community training centers (where telecommunications and computer skills are taught or used); 5) local com-puter enthusiasts and entrepreneurs (a still small but growing group of Native activists using the In-ternet and other computer networks); and 6) tele-phone, cable, and computer companies and radio/ TV stations serving Native communities. Native government and educational leaders could develop strategies to increase local exper-tise, and seek out the necessary financial resources (new or reprogrammed funds from both public and private sources). Native government leaders 9 Surveys conducted for the National Indian Policy Center, The George Washington University, indicate that the majority Of tribes have computers to carry out administrative functions, but only about 10 percentrept having access to the Internet (l 8 tribes out of 143 responded as of April 1995). Also see testimony of Bambi Kraus, Assistant Director, National Indian Policy Center, in U. S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Indian Affairs, Oversight Hearing To Examine the Feasibility of Creating a Permanent Indian Research Center, S. Hrg. 103- 61 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, May 20, 1993), pp. 16- 19. 102 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 97 and local activists may wish to create a telecom-munications coordinating committee or task force to provide additional impetus and focus. 10 These committees could include representatives from education, government, health care, information technology entrepreneurs, telecommunications providers, and others with relevant expertise and interest. An important part of empowerment is effective local planning. Only a few Native reservations, villages, and communities have a telecommunica-tions strategy or vision; most have, at best, some fragmented planning activities but no coherent picture or understanding of what telecommunica-tions can do to further their well- being. Native education and health care are the two areas where Native communities are more likely to have initi-ated some degree of serious telecommunications coordination and planning, reflecting in part na-tional program initiatives in distance learning and telemedicine. 11 No single technology fix exists for meeting Na-tive American needs. The greatest leverage is like-ly to result from a range of telecommunication technologies working in concert as part of tribal/ village/ community plans. Computer networking, satellite videoconferencing, computers and soft-ware, electronic imaging and production, tele-phone, telefacsimile, digital switching, broadcast radio and TV, cable TV, and cellular or wireless telephone are among the technologies likely to play significant but different roles. Finding the exact mix of technologies will be a challenge and will depend on the geography, de- mography, and economy of each community; the types of applications and users; and the develop-ment of the telecommunications infrastructure in areas where Native Americans live and work. Most Native reservations, villages, and com-munities would benefit from developing a plan or vision of how telecommunications could best meet their cultural, educational, health, economic development, and other needs. (See box 5- 1 on the Navajo Nation Telecommunications Initiative.) Even if rudimentary, a plan could provide some sense of direction and cohesiveness to local efforts at deploying and using these technologies. Also, a plan could provide local leaders with a framework for understanding and gauging government pro-posals and private sector projects that may be forthcoming. With an organized strategy, Native communities could be more proactive in the tele-communications arena with regard to both federal agencies and private vendors. The support of trib-al, village, and community leaders is essential to success. Native leaders could begin by considering the visions of grassroots telecommunications acti-vistsP those from the local Native community and elsewhere. Native communities could draw on and adaptP to the extent appropriateP the prior experience of numerous cities, towns, and states in developing telecommunication plans and community networks. 12 The national Native American leadership may wish to sponsor or de-velop sources of planning assistance for local Na-tive communities, including workshops and con-ferences on Native telecommunications infra-10 The Sisseton- Wahpeton Sioux Tribe, in Agency Village, South Dakota, for example, has established a Telecommunications Committee to develop a strategy for cooperative telecommunications infrastructure development and related training and technical support. Participants in-clude the tribal government, tribal college, Indian Health Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, and representatives of tribal housing, planning, education, economic development, gaming, and natural resource activities. See Oct. 17, 1994, letter from Arnold R. Ryan, Tribal Chairman, Sisseton- Wahpeton Sioux Tribe, to Donald Bad Moccasin, IHS Area Director, Aberdeen, South Dakota, and "Sisseton- Wahpeton Sioux Tribe Telecommunications Project," planning paper, n. d. 11 See, e. g., James S. Logan and David G. Swartz, Aberdeen Area Indian Health Service: Telemedicine Assessment Final Report (Oklahoma City, OK: Logan & Associates, Inc., Mar. 30, 1995). Also see Gonzalez, Connecting the Nation, op. cit., footnote 1, and W. Curtiss Priest, "Cost-Effective Networking of Schools and Homes," vision paper, Center for Information, Technology, and Society, Melrose, MA, July 7, 1995, avail-able by e- mail from bmslib@ mitvma. mit. edu. 12 See OTA, Making Government Work, op. cit., footnote 1. 103 98 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges As policies for the nation's "information superhighway" and telecommunications reform efforts are debated on Capitol Hill, the country is proceeding with a variety of public- private sector partnerships and cost- sharing arrangements. Native Americans are also searching for opportunities to participate. Native American organizations and federal agencies such as the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC), the American Indian Science and Education Society (AISES), the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and the Indian Health Service (IHS) have pilot projects in distance learning, telemedicine, electronic mail, and online database services. Partnerships among governments, schools, hospitals, libraries, and the private sector will likely be necessary to further develop and diffuse successful ap-plications and to cost- share the infrastructure. The Navajo Nation Telecommunications Initiative is such a partnership. The Navajo Nation's Information Technology Office in the Office of the President/ Vice President is attempting to integrate and facilitate all the disparate projects currently under way under the umbrella of a comprehensive Technology and Information Resource Plan While several Navajo leaders, with the backing of President Albert Hale, are championing the projects, state and federal agencies are provid-ing technical assistance and/ or seed money; and a cadre of volunteers is contributing consulting ser-vices pro bono. The private sector will be selling or donating hardware and services Participants in-clude: n n n from the federal government, Department of Energy's Los Alamos National Laboratory, Lawrence Liver-more National Laboratory, and Sandia National Laboratory; National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-tration (NASA); California Institute of Technology's Jet Propulsion Laboratory; Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Health Service, Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency; and Electronic Pathways All lance, funded by the National Science Foundation. from health and education, Navajo Community College; Crownpoint Institute of Technology; Crown point Public Schools, Navajo Nation Library System; Office of New Mexico State Senator Leonard Tsosie, New Mexico State Library, University of New Mexico's Medical School and Native American Studies program, Northern Arizona University (NAU); and Tucson's Mayo Clinic West. from the private sector, Navajo Communications Co.; New Mexico Technet in Albuquerque; Motorola, and long- distance carriers. (continued) structure development. Current or reprogrammed National Native American organizations are federal funds, as well as private sector funds (e. g., foundation grants), may be available for these pur-poses. z National Native Leadership To complement a grassroots emphasis, another key is strengthening Native American leadership on telecommunications at the national level. A handful of Native American researchers and acti-vists recently have begun a dialog on strategies for Native American telecommunications. The num-ber of Native American meetings, conferences, ar-ticles, and pilot projects with a telecommunica-tions theme is increasing, but is still minimal. beginning to focus on telecommunications, but still lag their non- Native counterparts. Special-ized groups are more active. The American Indian Higher Education Consortium, for example, is taking a lead role on distance education for tribal colleges. The Native American Public Broadcast-ing Consortium and the Indigenous Communica-tions Association are providing leadership on strengthening the Native radio network. Pacific Islanders in Communications, the Indigenous Communications Association, the Intertribal Geographic Information Systems Council, and other grassroots and professional groups are help-ing raise awareness in Native communities about 104 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications 199 Many projects, such as the Crownpoint Pilot Project, will provide agencies with Internet access through modems, dedicated data Iines, fiberoptic trunk lines, and wireless links for canyon and desert areas. Another project is NAU's distance- learning project that uses microwave links to deliver courses from NAU to the reservation. Also, NASA and the community colleges are working together to develop curricula to train fiberoptic cable installers and network managers. The Information Technology Off Ice IS responsible for integrating these efforts and facilitating working partnerships, which includes the cre-ation of an external advisory committee composed of individuals from the national labs, industry, and academia. The office recently started to develop a human resource program. The long- term goal for the Navajo Nation is to develop telecommunications Infrastructure for all 133,000 reservation Navajos in an area covering 25,000 square miles in New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. Navajo elders and leaders anticipate benefits in health care, education, social services, tribal government, environmental protection, and economic development. Moreover, online applications in the Navajo language will help strengthen the language. Perhaps the greatest benefit will be to stem the tide of Navajo who leave the reservation for education and employment. As expressed by New Mexico Sen-ator Leonard Tsosie, a Navajo, "Many hope that providing the reservation with the latest (telecommu-nications) technology will bring more Navajo youth back home." 1 SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, with information from John Billison, information Technology Office, Navajo Nation; Teresa Hopkins, Agency Network Project, Navajo Nation, Tommy Lewis, President, Navajo Community College, William Bostwick, Staff, Computer Information and Communications Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Gary Coulter, Special Assistant for Education and Outreach, NASA (on leave from Colorado State University), Jake Jacobson, Manager, Advanced Communications Lab, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and Steve Grey, Director, American Indian Program, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, per-sonal communications, February- April 1995 1 Crownpoint Community Network project home page, press release (Reuter), Albuquerque, NM, Sept 26, 1994 the telecommunications revolution. And Ameri- olution to establish a standing committee on "tele cans for Indian Opportunity and the American in dian Science and Engineering Society have fo-cused attention on the larger opportunities and challenges of telecommunications. The major umbrella organizations, however, notably the National Congress of American in dians (NCAI) and Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN), are just beginning to organize around this topic. The NCAI held a conference session on tribal telecommunications, 13 and has passed a res- communications access and ownership issues for tribal Nations." 14 These organizations could not only set up formal committees, but also develop strategies on telecommunications policy (or the national information infrastructure or a similar fo-cus), such has been done over the last several years by the National Conference of State Legislatures, the Council of State Governments, and similar non- Native organizations. 15 Such committees typically help organize conference sessions, pre-13 "Where the Red Road Meets the Information Highway," National Congress of American Indians Annual Conference, Denver, CO, NOV. 16, 1994. 14 National Congress of American Indians, Resolution #94- DEN- EF- lCH- 124, "Communication Based Delivery of Health Care, Educa-tion, and Economic Development for American Indians," Denver, CO, NOV. 13- 18, 1994. 15 See OTA, Making Government Work, op. cit., footnote 1. 105 100 Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges in 1978, the American Indian Telecommunications Satellite Demonstration Project Iinked the Crow Indian Reservation in Montana and the All- lndian Pueblo Council, Inc., in New Mexico with federal offi-cials in Washington, DC. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) provided techni-cal consultative services, facilities, and satellite time, and Indian tribes planned and conducted the pro-gram,. Nontribal participants Included the Congress; White House; Departments of Interior (including the Bureau of Indian Affairs), Agriculture, and Health, Education, and Welfare; Humboldt State Universi-ty, Arcata, CA, California State University, Long Beach, CA; and the Office of the Governor of Montana. A NASA report concluded that the three- day project successfully demonstrated the technical feasi-bility of providing two- way Interactive television with the TV signals transmitted by satellite. 1 Moreover, the report concluded that videoconferencing strengthened the tribal, federal, and congressional proc-esses and opened up the Iegislative process. 2 Participants recognized that both tribal and federal gov-ernment support, and tribal needs analysis, would be needed before a long- term project could be im-plemented, Many tribal participants, including the host tribes, came together a year later to form the First Americans Commission for Telecommunications (FACT). FACT, incorporated in May 1979, represents the first concerted effort on the part of native American tribes and Individual activists '( to employ communications systems, including satellite telecommunica-tions, to more effectively convey and share policy, program, and technical Information between 1 ) Na-tive peoples and the federal government; 2) Individuals and groups of Native people, and 3) native peoples and educational institutions." 3 in a special White House briefing to the Domestic Council, 4 June 1979, FACT outlined the potential of satellite communications in rural native areas. Telecommu-nications technologies have since expanded to include direct broadcast TV, computer networking, land- line videoconferencing, and within a few years, perhaps, wireless personal communications de-vices utilizing Iow- earth- orbiting satellites. But the impetus for telecommunications, after 16 years, has not changed significantly. And, although FACT is now defunct, its objectives are alive, with new technol-ogies and a new generation of activists. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, with information from materials provided by Jerry C Elliott, High Eagle, Assistant Chief Technologist, Technology Transfer and Commercialization Office, Lyndon B Johnson Space Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Houston, TX 1 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, American Indian Telecommunications Satellite Demonstration Project, Summa-ry Report (Houston, TX: Lyndon B Johnson Space Center, May 1979) 2 Another NASA- supported project at about the same time specifically Investigated the role that satellite videoconferencing might play in improving the dialog between Congress and the public Fred B Wood, Vary T Coates, Robert L Chartrand, and Richard F Ericson, Videoconferencing Via Satellte: Opening Congress to the Peep/ e, Summary Report (Washington, DC The George Washing-ton University, February 1978) 3 Constitution and Bylaws of the First Americans Commission for Telecommunications, Inc., Jan. 10, 1979. 4 The First Americans Commission for Telecommunications, Inc., Proposal for Satellite Telecommunications, submitted to The White House Domestic Council, June 1979 pare policy and planning papers, develop relation- ple, box 5- 2), but the technology and timing seem ships with universities and think tanks, seek proj- more favorable now. ect grants, and testify before legislative bodies. Universities that provide leadership education Native groups could establish an umbrella intertri- to Native Americans could include a component bal telecommunications organization. Prior ef- on telecommunications. Some major universities forts to do so were not successful (see, for exam- with American Indian academic or research pro- 106 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 101 grams, such as Harvard, Cornell, Washington State, and George Washington Universities, also have telecommunications expertise located else-where around campus. The same applies for the Universities of Alaska and Hawaii (and their associated community colleges), which provide educational and leadership services to Alaska Na-tives and Native Hawaiians, respectively. Leader-ship programs, such as the National Executive Education Program for Native American Leader-ship administered by Northern Arizona and Har-vard Universities, could do likewise. Other uni-versities that serve large Native populations, such as Oklahoma State, Arizona State, New Mexico, Northern Montana, and Oregon State, could de-velop Native American telecommunications pro-grams. 16 Also, some community service orga-nizations could provide leadership and techno-logy training at the grassroots level for current and aspiring leaders. Native organizations could part-ner with the private sector, as well as educators, in developing telecommunications technical assist-ance centers in Native areas. Various other region-al and specialized Native groups also could partic-ipate. 17 z Integrated Infrastructure Development Tribal, village, and community cost- sharing is es-sential to develop telecommunications infrastruc-ture. Most Native communities do not have the market and financial resources to develop multi-ple, independent, uncoordinated telecommunica- tions infrastructures. Infrastructure is defined here to include the necessary training and technical support, as well as hardware and software (e. g., computers, printers, networks, switches, video equipment, and satellite earth stations). Funds and expertise for building an adequate infrastructure are in short supply. In rural Native areas, the cost of telecommunications infrastructure can be sev-eral times national or metropolitan area averages due to fragmented supply and demand and multi-ple service areas, in addition to the inherently higher costs of reaching remote, dispersed us-ers. 18 The large unmet need for basic educational, so-cial, and health services in Native communities, coupled with the continuing constraints on the overall federal budget, means that federal funding for Native American telecommunications infra-structure is likely to be less than desired or needed. This bleak fiscal outlook increases the need to maximize the use of available funds. Telecommunications infrastructure is more costly to deploy in many Native communities be-cause of their remote, isolated locations combined with weak local economies. One effective strategy is to aggregate the local telecommunications mar-ket through close cooperation among schools, health clinics, family and community service cen-ters, tribal or local governments, and businesses located on or near Native reservations, villages, or communities. 19 These groups may be unable to afford new technologies when acting individually, 16 For an overview of American Indian higher education programs, see American Indian Science & Engineering Society, Annual College Guide for American Indians (Boulder, CO: AISES Publishing, Inc., 1994). 17 Other groups include, e. g., the National Indian Youth Council, Association of American Indian Physicians, Native American Journalists Association, Native American Bar Association, First Nations Development Institute, Native American Rights Fund, and various regional inter-tribal councils. See National Indian Policy Center, "Tribal Representation in Washington, DC: Its Past and Future Role in Executive Branch and Congressional Policy- Making," The George Washington University, Washington, DC, November 1993. 18 Frank H. Tyro, Director, Media and Teleproductions, Salish Kootenai College, Flathead Indian Reservation, Pablo, MT, personal commu-nication, May 3, 1995; and Marvin P. Mitchell, Head, Audiovisual/ Video Communications, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, personal communica-tion, May 2, 1995. 19 See chapter 3. On community computer networking, see, e. g., Frank Odasz, "Community Economic Development Networks: A Grass-roots Leadership Challenge," Internet Research, vol. 4. No. 1, spring 1994, pp. 2- 6; and The Morino Institute, "Assessment and Evolution of Community Networking," paper presented by Mario Morino at the Apple Conference on Building Community Computing Networks, Cupertino, CA, May 5, 1994. Also see Gonzalez, Connecting the Nation, op. cit., footnote 1, and Priest, "Cost- Effective Networking," op. cit., footnote 11. 107 102 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Top: The Oneida Nation is implementing an advanced tele-communications network to meet a range of tribal needs for members living on the reservation near Oneida, New York. Bottom: The Oneida network includes a fiberoptic backbone linking tribal administrative, cultural, law enforcement, hous-ing, and community service facilities. but when acting collectively they may be able to pool resources and justify the investment. Also, the aggregated market may be sufficient in some cases to attract outside investments or enhanced offerings from telecommunications service pro-viders (e. g., telephone, cable, and computer com- panies), or even help to justify the establishment of Native- owned and -operated telecommunica-tion and computer companies. Market aggrega-tion also could apply regionally and nationally, as the American Indian Radio on Satellite project is doing for the production and distribution of Na-tive American radio programming. Both the recipients of federal funds (in this case, Native tribes, villages, and communities) and the funding agencies would benefit by care-fully examining proposed telecommunications investments to increase the chances that technolo-gies and systems are compatible, complementary, user- friendly, and cost- effective. This review could extend to expenditures for relevant federal agency telecommunications systems because many of these connect with field offices located in or near Native communities. An integrated ap-proach should help minimize overlap and duplica-tion, and maximize both the leverage of the infra-structure investment and the return on taxpayer dollars. Pilot projects provide an important opportunity to assess the potential benefits, costs, and prob-lems associated with tribal/ village/ community use of telecommunications. A few pilot projects have been completed or are under way, typically with some federal support. But the number and breadth of projects are still limited compared to the range of possible applications. Additional projects would be helpful, especial-ly in defining the role of telecommunications in the areas of cultural heritage, community well- be-ing, economic development, and governance. Cultural heritage as defined here includes tribal/ village/ community traditions, ceremonial activi-ties, religion, and art. Community well- being in-cludes education, health care, family wellness, nutrition, and recreation. Economic development covers technical, human resource, financial, man-agement, and market factors that affect business startup, relocation, and job creation. Governance includes selection/ election of local officials, con-duct of tribal/ village government meetings and policymaking, administration of various tribal/ village government functions, and citizen moni- 108 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 103 toring of and participation in these activities. In reality, of course, the overall health of Native communities depends on the interaction of all these elements. Pilot projects could explore how an integrated tribal/ village telecommunications infrastructure can best support applications to specific aspects of community life. The community communication center is a concept to consider, especially in areas where it is unrealistic for most homes and offices to have anything more than basic telecommunica-tions in the short to medium term. A local high school, community college, library, multiservice center, or tribal/ village office could be designated as a community communication center where a wide range of telecommunications equipment and services is available to residents, including stu-dents and entrepreneurs (also see chapter 3). Such a center may be able to offer videoconferencing, computer networking, multimedia, and other ser-vices that may not be affordable or cost- effective in most individual homes and many businesses for some time. The multiservice center concept also is relevant as a way of providing technology- en-hanced "one- stop shopping" for a range of social, economic, and health services. 20 z Native Entrepreneurial Activity Formation of Native and tribally- owned and -op-erated telecommunications companies is a highly leveraged way to create jobs and stimulate local economic development. Native American reser-vations, villages, and communities range from the relatively affluent to the impoverished. Overall, however, most Native communities face serious difficulties in providing jobs for able- bodied adults or heads of families. Unemployment and poverty rates average about 50 percent on Indian reservations and in Alaska Native villages. Most jobs are government- related. Significant private sector job creation has been limited to a relatively few reservations and villagesP primarily those with marketable natural resources and/ or signifi- cant and accessible tourist attractions. Native Ha-waiian unemployment is lower than rural Indians and Alaska Natives, but still higher than national and state averages. Today, the number of Native- owned and -oper-ated telecommunications companies is very smallP a few telephone and cable companies and radio stations. Native entrepreneurs wishing to form telecommunications companies must over-come significant financial, technical, and human resource barriers. Some Native communities may find that needed telecommunications are accessi-ble and affordable from non- Native companies. Many Native communities may not have a market large enough to justify and sustain the formation of new telecommunications providers. Contigu-ous or adjacent Native communities could, in some cases, join forces to create a larger market. Congress could direct the NTIA and FCC, and other relevant federal agencies, to review how Na-tive telecommunications entrepreneurs might be encouraged in locations where market conditions are at least minimally supportive. Success stories like the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority (see box 5- 3) demonstrate that Native-owned and -operated telephone, cable TV, satellite broadcast TV, and cellular and wireless compa-nies are within reach. Also, Native leaders could consider ways to apply some portion of tribal rev-enues to support telecommunications startup ven-tures. Although Native telecommunications compa-nies alone will not guarantee an economic revival, they can help leverage the use of telecommunica-tions in at least four important ways: 1) facilitating the education and training of a skilled, marketable workforce in Native communities (a key factor in business location and investment decisions); 2) providing part of the technology infrastructure many businesses and investors now consider to be essential (e. g., to facilitate telecommuting, re-mote computer applications, electronic data inter-change, and the like) and, thus, indirectly attract-20 For related discussion, see chapter 3. 109 104 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges The Cheyenne River SIOUX Tribe (CRST) Telephone Authority, one of only a few tribally owned tele-phone cooperatives, is a story of tribal business and community leadership. Delivering basic telephone service since 1958, it now serves as a driver for economic development, and continues to assess the future advanced telecommunications needs of the community, including its schools and hospitals Oversight is provided by an independent board as well as the tribal government. The federal govern-ment has also had a role by providing critically needed loans and grants. Located in central South Dakota, the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation has 9,000 Lakota- Sioux members and covers 46,000 square miles, in 1977, the town of Eagle Butte housed one exchange with multiparty lines that were subject to outages due to ice storms. With the help of a Rural Electrification Administration (REA) loan, a newly created Telephone Authority purchased and consolidated local tele-phone systems and put in new underground lines for single- party service. Today there are five digital switches Iinked with fiberoptic cables, and the penetration rate is 72 percent. Ducts to hold future fiber-optic cable extend to the edge of town in anticipation of distance- learning and telemedicine applications. The Telephone Authority diversified in 1984 into customer premise equipment (CPE) with the forma-tion of CRST Telephone Sales and Service. Three years later, it purchased local companies and created Cheyenne River Gas and Cheyenne River Cable TV, which offers Direct Broadcast Satellite. These busi-nesses now employ 55 local people. in 1994, with an Indian Community Development Block Grant, the Telephone Authority set up the Lakota Thrifty Mart, a 17,000- square- foot supermarket that employs 35 local people. The Telephone Authority has plans for a convenience store and gas station in a remote community. Eagle Butte IS now the third fastest- growing town in South Dakota. And the future looks good. With a $20,000 Iicense purchased in 1991 for a Super 8 Motel and a recent guaranteed loan from the Small Business Administration, the tribe wiII soon have its first 40- room motel. With this facility the tribe is planning to draw on its native culture to attract tourism. And the tribally owned Buffalo Corporation is reintroducing buffalo on the reservation. While not yet a profitable business venture, the presence of buffalo symbolizes both economic prosperity and spiritual wellness. (continued) ing jobs; 3) creating jobs in computer, communi- to develop a federal Native American telecommu-cation, and other high- technology companies that decide to locate on or near reservations or in Na-tive villages; and 4) indirectly creating jobs by ex-panding markets for Native products and services through intertribal, regional, national, and interna-tional telemarketing to the extent the companies and jobs are actually located in or near Native communities and are open to Native Americans. REFOCUSING THE FEDERAL ROLE Consistent with empowering Native American communities, Congress and appropriate federal agencies could take action in the following areas nications policy, with the involvement of Native American groups, leaders, and telecommunica-tions activists. z Interagency Federal Strategy and Funding Dozens of federal agencies administer hundreds of federal programs that serve Native Americans. Several already provide some support for Native American telecommunications, but these efforts are uncoordinated and fragmented. Agencies with relevant programs include, for example, the Bu-reau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the in 110 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications 1105 The feeling of community renewal and hope permeated the recent 1994 Jimmy Carter Work Project, sponsored by Habitat for Humanity. Thirty homes were built by volunteers from all over the country. The Telephone Authority donated $100,000 worth of outside telephone plant, and every employee and board member volunteered for at least a day to help build the homes. Thus 17 years after the CRST Telephone Authority received a Rural Electrification Administration (REA, now the Rural Utilities Service) loan former President Jimmy Carter stood on the reservation and remarked, "I think [the REA] is one of the finest organizations that I've ever known, REA has a solid foundation with farms, with agricultural families, its historical Importance, its ability to bring people together in a democratic organization and let them say what is best for their own community..." Today the Telephone Authority is waiting for approval of another RUS loan to further upgrade and extend telecommunications Infrastructure, and may apply for an RUS grant for a distance Iearning pilot. This story Illustrates the Importance of tribal leadership as well as federal support for reservation development Says Orville Mestes, director of the Office of Planning and Economic Development, "One of the things that's happened as a result of the successful ventures of the Telephone Authority is man-agement expertise. We are training our own people to become managers. I think that's key to anything. " According to Bernie La Plante, Manager of the Thrifty Mart, "We took inexperienced workers and gave them the chance to learn the grocery business from the ground up. " As explained by J. D. Williams, General Manager of the CRST Telephone Authority, "There is skepticism abut Indian people running their own businesses We've had our failures, but I think that CRST Telephone Authority and the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe (are) proving the skeptics wrong. " SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, with information from J D Williams, General Manager, Cheyenne River SIOUX Tribe Telephone Authority, Eagle Butte, SD, personal communication, February 1995, and Jim Felter, "A Prophecy Fulfilled Building the Lakota Community" Rural Telecommunications Journal of the National Telephone Cooperative Association, November/ December 1994 pp. 14- 18 terior, Administration for Native Americans and Also, many of the activities and working groups Indian Health Service in the Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Indian Education in the Department of Education, Native American Programs Division in the Department of Labor, Rural Utilities Service (RUS) in the Department of Agriculture, National Telecommunications and Information Administration in the Department of Commerce. National Science Foundation, Smith-sonian Institution, National Endowment for the Arts, and Corporation for Public Broadcasting. 21 of the Administration National Performance Re-view and National Information Infrastructure pro-grams are relevant to Native Americans, and these initiatives cut across virtually every federal agency and program. Interagency Strategy The federal executive branch, with the support and oversight of Congress, could develop an inter-agency strategy to help provide direction and 21 Several other agencies also have relevant programs, such as the: National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bureau of Land Management in the Department of the Interior; Department of Energy (including various research laboratories); Army Corps of Engineers and Advanced Research Projects Agency, among others, in the Department of Defense; regional educational research laboratories in the Depart-ment of Education: Federal Highway Administration in the Department of Transportation; Department of Housing and Urban Development; Economic Development Administration in the Department of Commerce; Environmental Protection Agency; Small Business Administration; and National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 111 106 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges coordination for Native American telecommu-nications activities. This could include an inter-agency task force or working group. The strategy could identify opportunities to make the best use of scarce federal dollars for telecommunications education, training, pilot- testing, and infrastruc-ture development in Native American communi-ties. The strategy could include use of existing or new electronic clearinghouses to provide in-formation on relevant programs and projects, ac-cessible by Native American leaders and technol-ogy activists as well as federal personnel. An electronic clearinghouse would help ensure that federal agencies are at least aware of what others are doing. It also would help Native American ac-tivists and advocacy groups learn about federal plans and programs, and have timely opportuni-ties to participate. The clearinghouse could be managed and operated directly by a federal agency, a Native organization or university pro-gram serving Native Americans, or a private com-pany (ideally, Native- owned and -operated). The clearinghouse could include a Native American electronic home page with pointers to home pages of all agencies with information and programs relevant to Native American telecom-munications. OTA developed a home page for this study, known as the "Native American Resource Page," that includes links to a variety of other home pages with Native American information (see appendix B). The clearinghouse presumably would be accessible via the Internet and other computer networks. Over the last decade, Congress has systemati-cally revised and updated many statutory pro-grams to clarify their applicability to Native Americans (e. g., various education, health care, employment, training, and housing programs). Typically, these changes specifically identify American Indians and Alaska Natives, and less frequently Native Hawaiians, as eligible for pro-gram services and funding, and occasionally stip-ulate a required percentage or dollar set- aside for Native Americans. Statutory revisions concern-ing BIA and IHS programs have further reinforced Top: Byron Glacier Iocated about 50 miles southeast of An-chorage, is one of hundreds of glaciers in Alaska; glaciated mountain ranges dominate the landscape in many parts of the state. Bottom: The federal government plays a major role in Alaska, in part because of the large expanse of National Forests, Parks, Preserves, and Wildlife Refuges, and has a responsibility for respecting and protecting Alaska Native sacred sites and cultural traditions. the congressional intent that, where feasible, pro-gram management and administration be shifted from federal agencies to tribal/ village govern-ments. Other statutory actions have continued the shift toward reinforcing Native culture and em-powering Native communities to be responsible for their own governance. The current Congress is considering a wide range of program consolidations and block grant proposals, as part of the larger deficit reduction ef-fort. Native American leaders are concerned that program consolidations may have the unintended effect of reducing Native participation in program decisions and management, possibly cutting funding for Native programs, and undermining the federal trust responsibility and commitment to 112 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 107 Native self- determination. The current budgetary outlook obviously intensifies competition for scarce funds, and increases the difficulty of secur-ing funding support for new and emerging priority areas such as telecommunications. Congress could provide programmatic guidance to ensure that Native American telecommunications activi-ties get adequate attention. Congress and the President could direct the Ad-ministration to conduct a cross- cutting review of all federal programs and activities that are relevant to Native American telecommunications. The Of-fice of Management and Budget (OMB, in the Executive Office of the President) and NTIA, for example, could coordinate the review. The review could organize relevant programs around key themes such as: 1) developing local telecommu-nications infrastructure; 2) providing education and training on telecommunications applications; 3) strengthening tribal, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian expertise in telecommunications plan-ning; 4) supporting the formation of Native-owned and -operated telecommunications compa-nies; and 5) designing creative strategies to leverage telecommunications for education, health care, multiservice delivery, and economic development. This could provide a framework for estimating current funding and other support for Native telecommunications, including both gov-ernment- wide totals and allocations to the themat-ic areas. The results should help identify new op-portunities for collaborative, multipurpose invest-ments and activities, and provide a stronger basis for ensuring that the federal commitment to Na-tive American telecommunications is sustained at the level desired by Congress. Absent such a framework, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to understand the aggregate implications of nu-merous separate programmatic and budget deci-sions that may impact Native telecommunications. Guidance from Congress, the White House, OMB, and/ or NTIA could extend to the Informa-tion Resources Management (IRM) and National Performance Review (NPR) programs of the BIA, IHS, and other agencies with a major mission re-lated to Native Americans. Aspects of the Nation-al Information Infrastructure (NII) program that are most relevant to Native Americans also could be included. Specific NPR, NII, and IRM plans could be prepared for: 1) electronic delivery of federal (and other) services to Native Americans over the NII; 2) pilot- testing of telecommunica-tions applications in Native American communi-ties; and 3) development of Native American tele-communications infrastructure. 22 These plans also could address the need for tribes and Native organizations to make use of the NII for a wide range of self- governance functions. Agency- Specific Strategies NTIA could develop a strategy that gives higher priority in current grant programs to building Na-tive American telecommunications expertise and infrastructure. 23 NTIA could establish a new grant program for tribes and Native organizations that consolidates PEACESAT 24 and a portion of re-sources currently allocated to the Public Telecom-munications Facilities Program 25 and the Tele-communications and Information Infrastructure Applications Program. NTIA would be a logical agency to coordinate with the National Institute of Standards and Technology, also in the Department 22 BIA and IHS, for example, could pool their IRM and telecommunications resources in a joint effort to meet both agency and tribal needs. Randy Ross, Telecommunications Consultant, Rapid City, SD, personal communication, Apr. 8, 1995. 23 For example, NTIA is funding a planning grant for tribal councils to explore options for computer networking. Roanne Robinson, Special Assistant, NTIA, personal communication, May 3, 1995. 24 PEACESAT stands for the "Pan- Pacific Educational and Communications Experiment by Satellite" program that uses satellite telecom-munications for distance education and telemedicine between the Hawaiian and other Pacific Islands. 25 See NTIA, "NTIA/ PTFP Native American Grants," December 1994. NTIA provided funding to various tribal governments and organiza-tions for construction of public radio and television facilities. 113 108 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges of Commerce as well as with the FCC- on trib-al telecommunications security and standards is-sues, and with the Office of Information and Reg-ulatory Affairs (in the Office of Management and Budget, Executive Office of the President) on trib-al privacy, intellectual property rights, and in-formation management topics. The Rural Utilities Service (formerly the Rural Electrification Administration, within the Depart-ment of Agriculture) could clarify and strengthen its policy on tribal participation. Rural telephone companies owned and operated by tribes or Native Americans are eligible to apply for telephone equipment and infrastructure loans. Few applica-tions are received from Native organizations, however, due to their limited awareness of the pro-gram and limited expertise and capital. RUS could develop an outreach program to better inform trib-al and other Native governments about RUS loan eligibility and application requirements. RUS could work with BIA, ANA, and other agencies to upgrade technical assistance available to tribes. RUS also could coordinate with the FCC, and probably NTIA, to make sure that various federal policies and programs work to encourage, rather than discourage, the formation of tribal and Na-tive- owned and -operated telecommunications companies. 26 To ensure that the sum is greater than the parts in facilitating the formation and vi-ability of Native telecommunications enterprises, RUS, FCC, and NTIA could review a wide range of policies and programs: RUS loans; universal service funds; NTIA grants; financial account-ability; frequency spectrum auctions or assign-ments; tribal partnerships with commercial tele-communications companies; technical network and interconnection requirements; and compati-bility of RUS, FCC, state regulatory, and tribal telecommunications rules and procedures. The Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Health Service, and Administration for Native Ameri- Top: Satellite earth station operated by COMSAT at Paumalu on the north shore of Oahu Island, Hawaii. Bottom: Satellites provide vital telecommunications links between the Hawaiian Islands and both the mainland and other Pacific Islands. The COMSAT facility at Paumalu monitors telemetry necessary for operational control of satellites sewing the Pacific Basin. cans could develop both individual and coordi-nated strategies in Native telecommunications. The BIA and IHS serve the 550 federally recog-nized tribes and Alaska Native organizations. ANA serves, in addition, about 60 state- recog-nized tribes, tribes seeking federal recognition, and various Native Hawaiian and Native Pacific-Island American groups. The BIA uses telecommunications for its own agency purposes, provides some technology sup-port for tribal schools (e. g., classroom computers, 26 RUS also administers a distance learning and medical link grant program. See U. S. Department of Agriculture, RUS, "Distance Learning and Medical Link Grant Program Application Kit'' Washington, DC, Dec. 1, 1994, and "The Information Superhighway and the Rural Utilities Service." n. d. 114 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 109 distance learning, computer networking 27 ), and supports computer systems for the benefit of tribes at its Geographic Data Service Center and Division of Energy and Mineral Resources (e. g., the National Indian Oil and Gas Evaluation and Management System, National Indian Energy and Mineral Resources Database, and National Indian Seismic Evaluation System). BIA does not, how-ever, have a policy or strategy for the overall de-velopment of tribal telecommunications capabili-ties or infrastructure, although it is working on a draft strategy under the leadership of its Informa-tion Resources Management office. IHS also uses telecommunications for its own agency purposes, provides technology support to tribal hospitals, and actively promotes telemedicine, teleradiolo-gy, computerized medical records, and other tele-communications- based medical and health ap-plications. IHS has a general strategy on medical technology development, including telecommu-nications, but has not fully linked this strategy to other aspects of tribal telecommunications such as infrastructure development. ANA primarily ad-ministers grant programs for social, economic, and, recently, cultural development on reserva-tions and in Native villages. ANA is interested in telecommunications, but does not have a policy or strategy or programmatic emphasis on telecom-munications. These three agencies could develop a coordi-nated strategy for the development of telecommu-nications expertise and plans at the Native com-munity level. The agencies could find ways to leverage scarce resources by training local techni-cal experts, using the BIA and IHS telecommu-nications infrastructure where appropriate and feasible, and collaborating with telecommunica-tions policy and funding agencies (e. g., the FCC, NTIA, RUS) and with other federal agencies that serve Native Americans (e. g., Small Business Ad- ministration, Economic Development Adminis-tration, Agriculture Extension Service, Federal Highway Administration, and Employment and Training Administration). Most importantly, BIA, IHS, and ANA could develop a clear vision of the role of telecommu-nications infrastructure in meeting larger policy objectives, such as strengthening Native self- gov-ernance and improving the delivery of services to Native Americans. This vision could be closely tied to agency reinvention activities under the Na-tional Performance Review. Native leaders, groups, and activists would need to be centrally involved in the creation and implementation of a strategic telecommunications vision, as well as detailed followup plans. z Telecommunications Policy Over the past two years, Native American tele-communications activists have asserted that fed-eral telecommunications policy ignores or contra-dicts the principles of Indian law and federal Indian policy. 28 Based on its research, OTA reached a similar conclusion. The federal agencies with major responsibility for telecommunications policy, such as the FCC and NTIA, have not ap-plied Indian law to telecommunications policy. The agencies with lead responsibility for Native American programs, such as the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Health Service, and Administra-tion for Native Americans, do not have a Native American telecommunications policy; nor are they effectively engaged in the wider telecommu-nications policy debate. The federal government does not have a coherent focus on telecommunica-tions policy as it relates to Native Americans. The NTIA and FCC could initiate policy inqui-ries on Native American telecommunications, and invite active participation from tribal govern-27 Including ENAN, the Educational Native American Network. 28 See, e. g., Americans for Indian Opportunity, First Native American Telecommunications Forum (Bernalillo, NM: Americans for Indian Opportunity, December 1993), final report prepared for the National Science Foundation; James A. Casey, Esq., Fletcher, Heald & Hildreth, Arlington, VA, "Sovereignty," discussion paper, Jan. 30, 1995, and "Tribal Sovereignty and Telecommunications Opportunities: A Brief Dis-cussion," n. d. 115 110 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Left: AT& T Long Lines ship docked in Honolulu Harbor pre-paring to lay undersea fibre optic cable between several of the Hawaiian Islands. Right: Undersea fiberoptic lines com- plement satellites in linking Hawaii electronically with the rest of the world. GTE Hawaiian Telephone Co. contracted with AT& T to lay interisland fiberoptic cable that connects with trunk lines on the islands and transoceanic undersea links to the U. S. mainland and Pacific Rim. ments, Native technology activists, state regula-tors, private companies, and the like. 29 These policy initiatives could address both the need for .-and content of a government- wide policy state-ment and strategy, and specific topics like sover-eignty and self- determination, universal access, and strategic partnerships. Government- wide Policy Statement Congress and the President could designate a lead agency, such as NTIA, to develop and draft a policy statement that would apply established In-dian policy principles 30 to Native American tele-communications. NTIA could work with the FCC, state telecommunications or public utility regulatory commissions, tribal and other Native governments, and other relevant individuals and organizations in preparing a draft policy. Broad participation and review by tribes and other Na-tive governments, and by Native leaders and tele- communications activists, would help ensure a credible result. The policy statement could, for example: 1) de-fine the applicability of the federal trust responsi-bility to telecommunications, an essential compo-nent of ensuring tribal well- being and survival; 2) clarify the role of tribes as sovereign govern-ments- equivalent to states for the purpose of regulating and operating tribal telecommunica-tions where tribes wish to do so; and 3) encourage tribes to develop the capacity for self- determina-tion regarding telecommunications activities on tribal lands. The policy statement might also ad-dress more specific telecommunications policy topics such as: universal access on tribal lands, al-location of federal frequency spectrum to tribal governments, interoperability of telecommunica-29 The White House has appointed one American Indian LaDonna Harris, President, Americans for Indian Opportunity to the Adminis-tration's National Information Infrastructure Advisory Council, a private and public sector advisory committee that makes recommendations to the Secretary of Commerce. Information on NIIAC activities, including Native American testimonies at a meeting in Santa Fe, NM, on Apr. 12, 1995, can be found on a Department of Commerce Gopher server, gopher:// iitf. doc. gov. 30 See chapter 4. 116 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 111 tions systems on tribal lands, and quality of tribal telecommunications service. A federal policy presumably would apply to all federally recognized tribal and Alaska Native governments (approximately 550 in total). The policy could, however, afford flexibility to indi-vidual tribes, recognizing that they will have dif-fering levels of interest and capability in assuming telecommunications responsibilities. And tribal interest and capability likely will change over time. The policy could direct federal agencies to apply these principlesP to the extent appropri-ateP to state- recognized tribes and Native Ha-waiian groups or communities. The policy could establish new consultative mechanisms to im-prove coordination and collaboration between tribes, Alaska Native villages, Native Hawaiian communities, and their respective state govern-ment telecommunications agencies. Congress could amend federal telecommunica-tions law, and the Communications Act of 1934 in particular, to include a clear statement acknowl-edging the unique status of tribal governments, re-quiring tribal involvement in all aspects of tele-communications policy, and mandating the NTIA, FCC, and other appropriate federal agen-cies to develop detailed policy and legislative pro-posals. Tribal telecommunications provisions could be included in broader telecommunications policy reform bills, or through subsequent amend-ments or separate legislationP such as a "Tribal and Native American Telecommunications Act" or the equivalent. Congress could amend other statutes to provide guidance to relevant federal agencies on their role in Native American tele-communications. Where appropriate, legislation could address various agency policy and program-matic initiatives. The FCC could develop an American Indian and Alaska Native tribal policy, or a broader Na- tive American policy; set up an office of tribal or Native American affairs; and include tribal gov-ernments in regulatory proceedings on the same basis as states. This would be particularly impor-tant on issues such as universal access and sales of rural telephone exchanges that may significantly affect reservation and other Native American areas. Tribes could be represented on the joint fed-eral- state board that helps determine universal ser-vice fund procedures and allocations. 31 Also, the FCC could consider giving preference or priority to participating tribes in auctions or allocations of frequency spectrum over Indian lands where this is desired by and would benefit tribes. 32 The FCC could review its policies, programs, and rulemak-ings to ensure that Indian policy principles are ap-plied to any activities that have significant impacts on tribes and tribal lands. The FCC could open up a new formal notice of inquiry and rulemaking on Native American telecommunications issues. The logical application of Indian law and feder-al Indian policy 33 to the jurisdiction of the FCC would suggest that the FCC: 1) recognize tribes as governmental entities and make the distinction between minorities as individuals under existing minority policy, and tribes as governments under Indian policy; 2) thoroughly consider the implica-tions of proposed FCC actions for tribes; 3) afford tribes opportunity for full participation in FCC rulemakings; 4) encourage tribal self- determina-tion with regard to telecommunications on tribal lands; 5) afford tribes a governmental status equivalent to that of states with regard to telecom-munications regulation and operations on tribal lands, for those tribes desiring this status; and 6) encourage increased cooperation between and among state and tribal governments and the FCC. A major challenge would be defining a new telecommunications regulatory regime that in-volves the FCC, states, and tribes working as part-31 The federal- state board could be expanded by administrative or legislative action to include some tribal representation. 32 See chapter 4 for discussion of the FCC's current policies. 33 For detailed discussion of Indian law and policy, see chapter 4. 117 112 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges ners in government- to- government relationships. These relationships could be complex. 34 As a gen-eral rule, state governments lack jurisdiction over tribes and over Indians living on reservations, un-less Congress has expressly granted such jurisdic-tion. However, states generally do have jurisdic-tion over non- Indians living on reservations, unless: 1) preempted by federal law; 35 2) the non-Indians have consented to tribal jurisdiction; or 3) the exercise of state authority would infringe on the ability of a tribe to govern itself or would threaten the economic security, health, or welfare of the tribe. 36 Thus, if a tribe's jurisdiction is chal-lenged, a court will conduct an inquiry into the na-ture of the state, federal, and tribal interests at stake to determine if the state may regulate activi-ty on tribal lands. If the activity is subject to regu-lation under federal statute, then the court will analyze whether state regulation is preempted. If no federal statute applies, then the court will bal-ance the interests of the tribe and the state. In the field of telecommunications, the existing balance of federal- state authorities and responsibilities would, presumably, need to be adjusted to accom-modate heightened tribal involvement. 37 The essence of the tribal telecommunications policy challenge is the application of principles of tribal sovereignty to this technological arena. Tribal telecommunications policy is in its infancy. Tribal technology advocates believe that telecom-munications offers the potential to help revitalize Native communities while preserving and strengthening Native values and traditions. This is only likely to occur, however, if tribal sovereignty that is now established policy in the realms of education, health care, public works, and gover-nance is extended to another key part of the com-munity infrastructureP telecommunications. Na-tive American advocates believe that only in this way can tribal sovereignty in cyberspace be rea-sonably ensured. 38 34 State laws and legislative activity on Native American issues are extensive. See, e. g., Kimberly A. Morin, 1994 State Legislation on Native American Issues (Denver, CO: National Conference of State Legislatures, September 1994); and Alex White- Tail Feather, James B. Reed, and Judy Zelio, State- Tribal Legislation: 1992 and 1993 Summaries (Denver, CO: National Conference of State Legislators, February 1994). For an example of the complexities involved, see the 1995 proceedings of the South Dakota Public Utilities Commission on the proposed acquisition of local telephone exchanges by a tribally- owned telephone company (Owl River Telephone, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority). 35 See, e. g., New Mexico v. Mescalero Apache Tribe, 462 U. S. 324, 338- 44 (1983). 36 Montana v. United States, 450 U. S. 544, 565- 66 (1981). 37 The increasing involvement of tribal governments in the public utility industry, e. g., energy and electric power, may provide some insights and precedents for tribal telecommunications activities. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (Public Law 102- 486) essentially decentralized the electric power industry by expanding the range of companies that can enter the electric power generation market and ending electric power company monopoly control over interstate transmission lines. Title 26 of the act encouraged tribes to develop and regulate energy sources such as solar and wind energy, hydropower, and cogeneration. The involvement of tribes in the energy business has, however, created complex tribal-state- federal regulatory issues that may be indicative of the kinds of issues likely to arise should tribes became major players in telecommunica-tions. See generally Martin V. Kirkwood, "Federal and State Regulation of Tribal Utilities," Natural Resources & Environment, vol. 7, No. 4, spring 1993, pp. 27- 29, 59- 61. 38 This phrase derives from Baldwin, "American Indian Identity and Tribal Sovereignty in Cyberspace," op. cit., footnote 7; and Randy Ross, "The Net and Federal Indian Law," statement prepared for the National Information Infrastructure Advisory Council meeting, Santa Fe, NM, Apr. 12, 1995. Tribal legal advocates believe that tribes should have legal authority over telecommunications on or over Indian lands, and that the federal trust responsibility should include frequency spectrum allocation and use. Karen Funk and Sandra Ferguson, Esq., Hobbs, Straus, Dean & Walker, Washington, DC, personal communication, Feb. 6, 1995; James A. Casey, Esq., Fletcher, Heald & Hildreth, Washing-ton, DC, personal communication, Apr. 27, 1995; John Tahsuda, Esq., Holland & Hart, Denver, CO, personal communication, Apr. 28, 1995. 118 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 113 Universal Access The universal service component of national tele-communications policy could be revised to better meet Native American needs. Native Americans living in rural areas historically have had limited access to telecommunications. This results from the higher costs and technical difficulties of serv-ing geographically remote areas, combined with the distressed socioeconomic conditions in many Native communities. American Indian reser-vations and Alaska Native villages are, as a whole, among the most underserved areas of the United States with regard to telecommunications. There-cent increase in pilot tests and small- scale opera- Left: Devil's Tower stirred the imagination of Indians, who called it Mateo Tepee, meaning Grizzly Bear Lodge. Kiowa and Cheyenne Indian legends hold that the rock rose into the air protecting tribal members from a gigantic bear leaving claw marks gouged into the rock. Right: Devil's Tower rises 1,200 feet above the Belle Fourche River in northeast Wyo-ming, Devil's Tower National Monument was established in 1906 as the first national monument. Over the generations, the Shoshone, Comanche, Kiowa, Crow, Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Sioux Indians, among others, came to this area to camp and hunt. tional projects in rural areas is encouraging. But the gap is still wide between the technologies and services available in major U. S. metropolitan areas and those in rural, remote areas that are home to more than one- third of all Native Americans. With regard to basic telephone service, the na-tionwide rural telephone penetration rate averages 91.6 percent of homes. 39 While less than the 95.6 percent average in urban areas, the rural average seriously overstates actual telephone penetration in rural Native American communities. Analysis of U. S. Census data indicates that rural Native Americans as a group have an average telephone penetration rate of 55 percent- the lowest of any ethnic group in any geographic area. a This means that almost half of rural Native homes do not have 39 National Exchange Carrier Association, Inc., "Comments" prepared in response to NTIA Notice of Inquiry of Universal Service and Open Access Issues, Docket No. 940955- 4255, Dec. 14,1994, p. 24. 40 Ibid. Note that the 55 percent penetration estimate was a weighted average based only on communities with 50 percent or higher Native American population. For further details, contact the National Exchange Carrier Association. Also see Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce, News Release No. CB94- 127, Aug. 22, 1994, on Native American reservation household telephone penetration. 119 114 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges that almost half of rural Native homes do not have telephones. Telephone penetration is even lower in some areas. A survey of the Navajo Nation found that only about 35 percent of homes had telephones. 41 The portion of the Navajo Nation located in San Juan County, Utah, had the lowest penetration at 26.5 percent. 42 A survey of New Mexico reservations (including pueblos) con-cluded that "rural reservations rarely exceed 60 percent [residential telephone] penetration." 43 Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiians in rural areas generally have higher telephone penetration rates than rural American Indians, but still below the national averages. Low telephone penetration in rural Native areas generally reflects a combination of infrastructure deficiencies, low family income, and, in some cases, cultural preferences. Some rural Native Americans prefer not to have a telephone for cul-tural or lifestyle reasons, even when costs are sig-nificantly subsidized through universal service funds and telephone lifeline programs. 44 The principle of universal access dates to the early days of telephony, and reflects the congres-sional and governmental desire that all areas of the nation have reasonable access to telecommunica-tions services. Congress was concerned that indi- vidual telephone customers, local users, and rural users could be disadvantaged. Within a very broad statutory framework, the Federal Communica-tions Commission worked with state regulators and industry to establish a system of cross- subsi-dies (or cost- shifting) to reduce the rate differen-tials that would otherwise exist between local and long- distance calls, and rural and urban areas. 45 This includes a Universal Service Fund (USF) for rural areas (administered by the National Ex-change Carrier Association) and a telephone life-line assistance program (offering low- cost basic service) for low- income users in rural and urban areas. 46 Also, Congress established a rural telephone program, now administered by the Rural Utilities Service, within the U. S. Department of Agricul-ture, to provide subsidized and government- guar-anteed loans to rural telephone companies. 47 Con-gress acted on the assumption that rural, remote America would be disadvantaged because of the inherently higher costs of telephone service in areas with much lower customer density and much longer distances to wire (i. e., higher costs spread over fewer customers). 48 Advancing technologies and services, deregu-lation, and increasing competition have compli-41 Rodger Boyd, testimony before the National Telecommunications and Information Administration and New Mexico State Corporation Commission, Hearing on Universal Service, Albuquerque, NM, Dec. 16, 1993. 42 Ibid. 43 Miller Hudson, John Cordova, and Stan Pino, "New Mexico Tribal Telecommunications Research Study 'Community of Interest Net-workP Information Highway Project, '" prepared by TakeOne Productions, Denver, CO, for US West, Jan. 30, 1995. US West also sponsored a similar study of Arizona tribal telecommunications. 44 GTE Telephone has found this often to be the case in its New Mexico service area. Duane G. Johnson, Assistant Vice President, Regulato-ry Affairs and Government Relations, GTE Telephone, Irving, TX, personal communication, May 2, 1995. 45 See generally, U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Rural America at the Crossroads: Networking for the Future, OTA-TCT- 471 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, April 1991). 46 See National Exchange Carrier Association, "An Industry Agent of Universal Service," Washington, DC, Nov. 9, 1994. 47 See Rural Electrification Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Rural Electrification Act of 1936, With Amendments as Ap-proved Through December 17, 1993, Informational Publication 100- 1 (Washington, DC: Rural Electrification Administration, 1994), and "An Overview of the REA Telephone Loan Program," n. d. 48 OTA, Rural America at the Crossroads, op. cit., footnote 45. 120 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 115 Top: Microwave relay tower along the Richardson Highway and the Trans- Alaska Pipeline, operated by the Alyeska Com-pany This tower is Iocated between Paxson and Delta Junc- tion, Alaska. Bottom: The Alyeska Company depends on microwave communication links for telephone service along much of the pipeline route. Pipeline operations, maintenance, and security depend on telecommunications. cated the definition and implementation of univer-sal access. Congress is in the process of revising national telecommunications policy, and could consider and refine the universal access proposals to specifically address Native American needs. The FCC is examining universal access as well, and could give greater attention to the implica-tions for Native tribes, villages, and communi-ties. 49 Also, NTIA is studying universal access as part of the NII initiative. 5o These inquiries could focus more explicitly on the availability of univer-sal service funds and telephone lifeline services in rural Native areas. Pending legislation would reaf-firm the national commitment to universal service and provide statutory guidance to the FCC in its efforts to revise and update universal service in light of changes in technology and competition. 51 Congress, the FCC, and NTIA could consider, from Native American Perspectives: 1) the defini-tion of universal service (e. g., what technologies and services to include); 2) benchmark levels of service (e. g., need and ability to pay for specific types of services, and surrogate indicators like per- capita income or customer density per square mile); 3) cross- subsidies required (based on as-sumptions about services, costs, needs, and ability to pay); and 4) alternative ways to provide the cross- subsidies (e. g., surcharge on service costs, percentage of gross revenues, reserve capacity, or customer vouchers). Congress and the Adminis-tration could review and possibly revise the RUS's rural telephone programs that currently or potentially benefit Native American service areas (specifically including Native Hawaiian commu-49 Federal Communications Commission, Notice of Inquiry on Amendment of Part 36 of the Commission's Rules and Establishment of a Joint Board, Common Carrier Docket No. 80- 286, Aug. 30, 1994. 50 National Telecommunications and Information Administration, U. S. Department of Commerce, Notice Of Inquiry of Universal Service and Open Access Issues, Docket No. 940955- 4255, Sept. 13, 1994. 51 See S. 652, the "Telecommunications Competition and Deregulation Act of 1995," 104th Cong., 1st Session, passed as amended by the U. S. Senate; and H. R. 1555, the "Communications Act of 1995," 104th Cong., lst Session. Also see U. S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Corn-merce, Science, and Transportation, Telecommunications Competition and Deregulation Act of 1995, S. Rpt. 104- 23 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, Mar. 30, 1995). See generally Angele A. Gilroy, Congressional Research Service, "Telecommunications Regula-tory Reform," CRS Issue Brief IB95067, Apr. 21, 1995 (updated regularly). 121 116 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges nities as well as American Indian reservations and Alaska Native villages). The general opinion of Native activists and leaders is that universal service should be a dy-namic, not static, concept. Telecommunications services available to rural Native areas should im-prove over time in approximate parallel with ser-vice upgrades in non- Native rural areas and met-ropolitan areas. In this view, basic telephone serviceP a goal not yet achieved in many rural Native areasP should be a minimum standard; en-hanced services will be needed if rural Native Americans are to fully leverage the technology for educational, health care, economic development, and other purposes. 52 In large part because of uni-versal service funds and RUS loans, rural tele-phone companies have been able to upgrade rural telephone equipment and networks in recent yearsP digital switching is now commonplace and fiberoptic backbone is increasing rapidly. 53 However, reservation areas are among the most expensive to serve and among the last to get the technology upgrades. Without universal service funds, telephone rates in rural areas could, and probably would, in-crease significantlyP estimated at 30 percent or more. 54 Given the already depressed incomes on many Indian reservations and in most Alaska Na- tive villages, this would further impede realiza-tion of even basic telephone service for many Na-tive Americans. Telephone penetration rates drop significantly for households with an annual in-come under $20,000, and even more dramatically when annual income dips below $10,000. 55 Many rural Native household incomes fall within this range, and thus are most vulnerable to rate in-creases. 56 Strategic Partnerships Strategic partnerships between the private sector and tribes, villages, communities, and Native ser-vice providers could be encouraged by the FCC, NTIA, and Congress. Native leaders could work with the private sector to examine ways to upgrade service to Native communities. Private compa-nies could develop their own estimates of market, demand, and cost factors in Native American areas. The companies could estimate what mix of market forces, customer demands, cross- subsi-dies, federal (and other governmental) programs, and perhaps nonprofit- sector programs would re-sult in upgraded services to Native Americans. This could involve participants such as region-al Bell operating and other telephone companies; long- distance telephone carriers; competitive ac-cess carriers (including electric power utilities); 52 See National Telecommunications and Information Administration, U. S. Department of Commerce, The NII Field Hearings on Universal Service and Open Access: America Speaks Out (Washington, DC: NTIA, September 1994), a report of the Information Infrastructure Task Force, Telecommunications Policy Committee. Also see statement by LaDonna Harris, Americans for Indian Opportunity, Bernalillo, NM; James H. May, California State University at Chico; and George Baldwin, Henderson State University (now at California State University at Monterey Bay), "Opinion Statement on Universal Service for American Indians and Alaska Natives," prepared for the National Telecommu-nications and Information Administration, n. d. 53 See Rural Electrification Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1993 Statistical Report: Rural Telephone Borrowers, Informa-tional Publication 300- 4 (Washington, DC: REA, August 1994); and National Exchange Carriers Association, "Building the Telecommunica-tions Infrastructure in Rural America: Achievements Toward the Promise," Washington, DC, November 1993. 54 See Rocky Mountain Telecommunications Association, Scottsdale, AZ, and Western Rural Telephone Association, Santa Rosa, CA, Uni-versal Service Subcommittee, "Universal Service in the Nineties," A Western Alliance Report, n. d.; Carol Weinhaus, Sandra Makeeff, Peter Copeland, et al., "What is the Price of Universal Service? Impact of Deaveraging Nationwide Urban/ Rural Rates," Telecommunications Indus-tries Analysis Project, School of Business, University of Southern California, July 25, 1993; and Carol Weinhaus, Teresa Pitts, Rob McMillan et al., "Abort, Retry, Fail? The Need for New Communication Policies," Telecommunications Industries Analysis Project, College of Business Administration, University of Florida, Oct. 10, 1994. 55 See NECA, "Comments," op. cit., footnote 39; Jorge Reina Schement, Alex Belinfante, and Larry Povich, "Telephone Penetration 1984- 1994," paper prepared for the Federal Communications Commission's Chairman Reed Hundt, Oct. 17, 1994; Jorge Reina Schement, Rut-gers University, "Beyond Universal Service: Characteristics of Americans Without Telephones, 1980- 1993," Mar. 1, 1994. 56 For the Navajo Nation, for example, about 55 percent of households have annual incomes below $19,000. See Boyd, op. cit., footnote 41. 122 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 117 Top: NYSERNet's computer operations center in Liverpool, New York. NYSERNet, Inc., provides computer networking services, training, and technical support to educational, re-search, governmental, and other users- including Indian tribes. Bottom: NYSERNet provides Internet connectivity for the Oneida Nation in New York. The Oneida Nation has devel- oped home page that is accessible via Internet at http: llnysernet. orgloneidal. Also see appendix B. rural telephone cooperatives; cable television companies; cellular telephone, satellite, and other wireless companies; radio/ TV broadcasting sta-tions; and computer technology, service, and net-working companies. The examination could iden-tify economic development, community infra-structure, and other policies, in addition to tele-communications policy, that might work together to help upgrade service. Telephone companies, for example, vary in their approach to the rural reservations and vil-lages in their service zones. Some are upgrading service to rural areas, including reservations. Some companies provide grants or other forms of special assistance to Native and other underserved rural areas. Others are selling off rural telephone exchanges that are too costly to serve or do not fit in with corporate objectives. Tribes have a major say, if they wish to exercise it, in who provides telecommunications on reservation lands and how it is achieved. In some situations, tribes may wish to enter into formal partnerships with telecommu-nications providers, or organize their own tribally controlled and operated telecommunications companies and cooperatives. The results of a New Mexico tribal telecommunications survey identi-fied 12 keys to successful introduction of new technologies in tribal communities (see box 5- 4). The few tribes with significant gaming reve-nues could invest some portion of net profits in telecommunications infrastructure and services, including the formation of tribal telecommunica-tions companies or partnerships. The Indian Gam-ing Regulatory Act 57 permits use of net revenues from tribal gaming to fund tribal government op-erations and programs, provide for the general welfare of the Indian tribe and its members, and promote tribal economic development. Invest-ments in tribal telecommunications and tribal telecommunications companies and partnerships, properly defined and organized, should serve one or more of these purposes. 57 Public Law 100- 497, 25 USC Sec. 2710( b)( 2)( B). 123 118 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges A survey of New Mexico tribes and pueblos identified 12 keys to successful introduction of telecom-munications technology in traditional Indian communities: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Form collaborate relationships with key participants early in the telecommunications infrastructure development process and emphasize perceived community needs. Determine individual and community goals before proposing specific telecommunications service options. Provide specific information about the strengths and weaknesses of new telecommunications technology and how the technology can contribute to individual and community goals. The new telecommunications technology and the participants and partners involved with imple-mentation must be "culturally appropriate" if the technology is to become valued in the community. Exercise sensitive and appropriate interpersonal cross- cultural communication skills and behaviors when working in and with Indian communities. Demonstrate an awareness, sensitivity, and appreciation for issues related to the preservation of traditional cultural and sacred places. Tell the entire story about an operational telecommunications development project, including the role local participants played in changing the Iiving and learning environment of the community New telecommunications technology and/ or services should be sustainable and should build on ex-isting capacities for addressing community needs, desires, and goals. New telecommunications technology should be targeted at increasing total benefits to the communi-ty. Long- term benefits to providers, partners, and entrepreneurs will also be optimized if this strategy is employed. Knowledge about new telecommunications technology should be disseminated with care so that the effectiveness of the technology is fully and accurately understood. Communicate all anticipated outcomes of telecommunications projects to clients, decisionmakers, and the broader public in a culturally influential and comprehensible way. Design and Implement telecommunications development projects in partnership with others so as to maximize benefits and minimize costs at the community level. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, based on Miller Hudson, John Cordova, and Stan Pine, "New Mexico Tribal Tele-communications Research Study 'Community of Interest Network information Highway Project," prepared by TakeOne Produc-tions, Denver, CO, for US West, Jan 30, 1995 I z Information Policy For more than a decade, computer activists and Federal officials need to explicitly consider Na- advocates in the U. S. research and business com-tive American perspectives when formulating in- munities have been concerned about the risks and formation policy. And Native groups need to be complications, as well as the benefits, of using encouraged to develop positions on privacy, intel- electronic networks to retrieve, distribute, and ex-58 Paramount among in- lectual property rights, and other information change information. policy issues. formation policy issues are privacy, intellectual 58 See, e. g., OTA, Making Government Work, op. cit., footnote 1; U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Finding a Balance: Computer Software, Intellectual Property, and the Challenge of Technological Change, OTA- TCT- 527 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, May 1992): and Critical Connections: Communication for the Future, OTA- CIT- 407 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, February 1990). Also see U. S. Office of Management and Budget, Circular A- 130, "Management of Federal Information Re-sources," June 25, 1993, and the "Paperwork Reduction Reauthorization Act of 1995," Public Law 104- 13. 124 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 119 (and cultural) property rights, security, computer crime, and electronic freedom of speech and press. These concerns have been intensified by the de-creasing costs of computers and telecommunica-tions and the rapid increase in the use of networks in recent years. Native Americans familiar with electronic net-works are concerned that telecommunications could increase the likelihood of electronic inva-sions of tribal privacy, and electronic abuse or misuse of information, products, and services created or provided by tribes and tribal mem-bers. 59 One concern is that sensitive Native religious and spiritual information, if computer-ized, could more easily be accessed by unautho-rized persons and used for inappropriate purposes. Computer networking makes it more difficult to verify the authenticity of users; some non- Indians have been using Indian names and computer ad-dresses on the Internet. Native arts, crafts, and traditional practices are especially vulnerable to misuse and misrepresentation. Non- Natives may use or sell Native artwork electronically without authorization or fair compensation, or may adver-tise and sell non- Native art as Native. These kinds of activities are clear violations of privacy and in-tellectual property rights, and also compromise Native cultural identity and self- determination. The volume of Native information and cultural materials created and marketed electronically is still small, as is the number of tribes and Native Americans using computer networking. Comput-er and telecommunications use by Natives is growing rapidly, however. Younger generations are much more familiar with the technology than their tribal elders, and will further accelerate the growth of computer networking and use of multi-media and other electronic technologies that are well suited to recording and sharing Native cul-ture. Also, as Native governments make greater use of telecommunications, they will need to give heightened attention to protecting the privacy and security of medical and other personal informa-tion needed for tribal administration and for deliv-ery of health, social, and employment services. 60 Native Americans, therefore, have a significant and growing interest in the overall evolution of U. S. privacy and intellectual property policy, as well as development of tribal- specific policies that may vary depending on local values and cus-toms. Native participation in national information policymaking efforts seems essential to ensure that policies reflect Native concerns and protect the religious and cultural heritage of Native Amer-icans. Regional and national Native groups, such as the National Congress of American Indians and Federation of Alaska Natives, could include in-formation policy issues within the purview of any telecommunications committees that they estab-lish. Grassroots groups, such as the Indigenous Communications Association, Americans for In-dian Opportunity, and Pacific Islanders in Com-munications, could collaborate with non- Native computer advocacy and community networking groups concerned with similar issues. The Nation-al Public Telecomputing Network, Big Sky Tele-graph, Center for Civic Networking, Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, American Library Association, Consortium for School Net-working, and Electronic Frontier Foundation are among the many organizations with whom Native groups might seek common understanding and al-liances. Similarly, the American Indian Science and Engineering Society could collaborate with 59 See Ross, "Tribal Rights and Cultural Identity in Cyberspace," op. cit., footnote 7; Baldwin, "American Indian Identity and Tribal Sover-eignty in Cyberspace," op. cit., footnote 7; and George D. Baldwin, "Public Access to the Internet: American Indian and Alaskan Native Issues," paper prepared for the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, February 1994. 60 See, generally, OTA, Making Government Work, op. cit., footnote 1; Protecting Privacy in Computerized Medical Information, OTA-TCT- 576 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, September 1993); Information Security and Privacy in Network Environments, OTA- TCT- 606 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, September 1994); and Issue Update on Information Security and Privacy in Network Environments, OTA- BP- ITC- 147 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, June 1995). 125 120 I Telecommunications TechnologY and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Left: US West participant at the 1994 annual conference of the American Indian Science and Engineering Society. AISES mem- bers include American Indian students, faculty, and science and technology professionals from industry and government. Right: Intel Corporation computer display at the 1994 AISES conference in San Jose, California. AISES provides a forum for dis-cussion of telecommunications and information technology policy issues relevant to American Indians. the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engi-neers and the American Association for the Ad-vancement of Science. NTIA could initiate an in-quiry specifically on tribal information policy issues. The National Science Foundation could fund policy analysis by Native Americans and Na-tive groups on these issues. Universities with Na-tive American programs could add courses and develop curricula on Native information policy. Native communications professionals appear to agree on the potential of electronic technologies to reaffirm and strengthen Native culture. But they are concerned about "tribal rights and sovereignty in the realm of cyberspace." 61 They want to ensure that telecommunications policy will promote the cultural and economic progress of Native peoples, rather than perpetuate the historical subjugation of Native Americans to the majority society. 62 n Further Research and Evaluation This is the first federal government report on Na-tive American telecommunications, and, to the best of OTA's knowledge, the first comprehensive report on this topic. The report builds, in part, on the work of Native American telecommunications activists and researchers who have been among the first to understand the potential. Clearly, the field of Native American telecommunications is still in its early stages. While some policy deci-sions could be responsibly made today, future ap-plications and policymaking would benefit from 61 See Americans for Indian Opportunity, First Native American Telecommunications Forum, op. cit., footnote 28. 61 Baldwin, "Public Access to the Internet," op. cit., footnote 59. 126 Chapter 5 Policy Framework for Native American Telecommunications | 121 significant, continued research on many of the topics discussed in this report. During the course of this study, OTA identified a variety of areas for further research, including: 1. identification of the prerequisites of effective Native leadership and governance with regard to telecommunications; 2. impacts of telecommunications applications and policy options on diverse Native cultures; 3. reinvention of Native governments, in part through the use of telecommunications; 4. statistics and demographics on Native Ameri-cans and their use of telecommunications; 5. statistics on the current and evolving telecom-munications infrastructure in Native commu-nities; 6. impacts and sustainability of telecommunica-tions pilot projects in Native communities; 7. effects of telecommunications on Native cus-toms, values, well- being, and economic pros-pects; 8. need for telecommunications infrastructure development, applications, and services in Native areas; 9. cost estimates of various telecommunications projects and programs; 10. role of telecommunications in successful Na-tive entrepreneurial efforts; 11. evaluation of federal and state programs rele-vant to Native American telecommunica-tions; 12. development of Native American information policies on both tribal/ village/ community and national levels; 13. application of library and information science to Native American telecommunications in-frastructure development and policies; and 14. legal, regulatory, and constitutional issues associated with Native American telecommu-nications. This report does not consider the telecommu-nications needs of Native Americans living on other Pacific Islands such as the U. S. territories of Guam and American Samoa and the U. S. Com-monwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands. 63 While the thrust of this report is generally applica-ble, further research would be needed to better un-derstand how telecommunications could help im-prove socioeconomic conditions on the Pacific Islands and help strengthen the ancestral, cultural, and economic ties between Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islander Americans. Federal policy could redirect agency research programs and encourage the development of cen-ters of telecommunications expertise in Native or-ganizations and in universities that serve Native Americans. 64 Native research centers could be en-couraged to use telecommunications both to con-duct research and to disseminate the results (see box 5- 5). Federal agencies that support Native American telecommunications pilot projects and infrastructure development could be required to include an evaluation component. The Office of Management and Budget (in the Executive Office of the President) could require the federal statisti-cal agencies to improve data collection and analy-sis on American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Na-tive HawaiiansP as individual racial/ ethnic groups and as Native Americans collectively. The statistical agencies could develop and issue a spe-cial report, or series of reports, linking demo-graphic characteristics, socioeconomic and health conditions, and use of telecommunications techno-logyP with a special focus on rural Native areas. An appropriate federal agency, university re-search center, and/ or Native organization could, for example: 1) conduct a survey of Native Ameri-can telecommunications infrastructure (see appendix C for an illustrative survey research instrument); 2) maintain and update the Internet-63 Other islands formerly part of the U. S. Pacific Island Trust Territories include the Federated States of Micronesia, Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Republic of Palau (in the process of implementing a compact of free association). 64 Among the several universities with relevant programs are Harvard, Northern Arizona, Washington State, George Washington, Syracuse, Illinois, and California State at Monterey Bay. 127 122 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges The National Indian Policy Center (NIPC) conducts or sponsors research on a wide range of Indian policy issues and operates a clearinghouse for the dissemination of research results and other relevant information in a variety of formats paper, telefacsimile, and electronic. NIPC is funded by the Adminis-tration for native Americans (within the Department of Health and Human Services) with additional sup-port from The George Washington University, where the Center is located. NIPC prepares or sponsors research reports in seven major areas: 1) cultural rights and resources, 2) economic development, 3) education, 4) health and human services, 5) law and administration of justice, 6) natural resources, and 7) tribal governance. Most research reports are available in hard copy or online From March 1 through September 30, 1994, NIPC received about 4,000 requests for research reports roughly 70 percent of requests were for electronic copies and 30 percent for paper copies. During this same period, NIPC received about 27,000 other requests for online clearinghouse informa-tion that was downloaded electronically by users at remote locations. Based on a three- month sample (January 1 through March 31, 1995), NIPC estimates that requests for research reports are distributed approximately as follows: educational institutions (including those with American Indian programs), 38 percent, tribal governments, 27 percent; Indian organizations, 18 percent, federal government agencies, 9 percent; and state governments, 8 percent. NIPC is currently expanding its clearinghouse activity to include information on hearings and pend-ing Iegislation relevant to Native Americans and testimony by tribal leaders and government officials before congressional committees. For these purposes, NIPC uses broadcast telefacsimile for the rough-ly 450 tribal governments that have telefacsimile equipment and uses mail for the rest. NIPC would like to expand use of the Internet for distribution of reports and other clearinghouse in-formation to tribal governments At present, however, only a small minority of tribal governments has access to the Internet A 1995 NIPC survey found that only 18 tribal governments reported being on the Internet, out of 150 tribes responding. Another 16 tribes reported that they were considering or in the process of obtaining Internet access Until more tribal governments have and use Internet, NIPC will continue to rely on the telephone, telefacsimile, and mail. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1995, based on Bob Arnold, Bambi Kraus, and Orna Weinroth, National Indian Policy Center, 1995, personal communications Also see National Indian Policy Center, Progress Report on the Feasibility Study for a National Indian Policy Center (Washington, DC The George Washington University, NIPC, Aug. 15, 1991); NIPC brochure, n. d. ; and U. S. Con-gress, Senate, Committee on Indian Affairs, Oversight Hearing To Examine the Feasibility of Creating a Permanent Indian Research Center, S. Hrg. 103- 61 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, May 20, 1993) accessible Native American Resource Page devel- of telecommunications resources available to oped by OTA for this study (see appendix B); 65 them (see appendix A on computer networking for and 3) help the Native American research commu- Native Americans). nity make best use of the already significant range 65 Internet traffic suggests significant interest in the Native American Resource Page. During the period Jan. 10 through Apr. 4, 1995, this page was accessed 8,282 times accounting for about 6 percent of total Internet inquiries to OTA and 23 percent of total information downloaded from the OTA Internet site. 128 | 123 Appendix A: Computer Networking for Native Americans omputer networking is a powerful tool avail-able to Native Americans who have access to the necessary computer equipment, telecom-munication lines, and technical assistance. The Office of Technology Assessment has used com-puter networking to locate and obtain information on Native American issues. Project staff have used dial-up connections and the Internet (with a full- time dedi-cated connection) to access various Gopher servers, 1 electronic mail list servers (e- mail listservs), electron-ic bulletin board services (BBSs), file transfer proto-col (FTP) servers, and World Wide Web (WWW) serv-ers that contain information on Native American issues, concerns, and culture. PROJECT EXPERIENCE WITH COMPUTER NETWORKING z Gopher Servers To find Native American computer sites and docu-ments, OTA project staff began with a search of what is known as "Gopher space." Gopher is a computer- ized menu- based system. The searches were facili-tated by using a tool called "Veronica" (an acronym for Very Easy Rodent- Oriented Net- wide Index to Computerized Archives). Veronica searches Gopher servers all over the world for file and directory names with key words entered by the user. 2 Through these searches, project staff found a significant amount of information relevant to Native American topics, in-cluding lists of electronic discussion groups (list serv-ers) and BBSs on topics related to indigenous peoples. Organizations maintaining Native American Go-pher servers include the National Indian Policy Center (NIPC) at George Washington University and the Ex-tension Indian Reservation Program (EIRP) of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The NIPC Gopher server contains information on topics such as culture, education, environmental protection, and tribal gover-nance. The host address is gwis. circ. gwu. edu. The successive menu choices to get to the NIPC are first "Centers, Institutes, and Research at GWU," followed by "Centers and Institutes," and finally, "National In-dian Policy Center." The EIRP Gopher at 134.121.80.31: 70/ 1/ eirp/ eirp. 70 contains information 1 A server is a computer that stores files and "serves" them to other computers referred to as clients. 2 For a discussion on search strategies for Native American topics see Jeanette M. Mueller- Alexander and Helen J. Seaton, "Researching Native Americans: Tips On Vocabulary, Search Strategies and Internet Resources," Database, April 1994, pp. 45- 56. 129 124 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges on tribal and federal courts, grant information, events in Indian country, and Native American literature as well as many other topics. Other Gopher servers are listed in OTA's Native American Resource Page de-veloped for this study (see appendix B). z Anonymous File Transfer Protocol Servers OTA discovered only a few anonymous FTP servers (compared with several Gopher servers and many WWW servers) with Native American information. Cornell University has an anonymous FTP server at ftp. cit. cornell. edu with several files addressing Native American topics in the directory pub/ special/ Native-Profs. OTA found information such as tribal college addresses, lists of federally recognized tribes (along with their phone numbers and addresses), examples of Native fonts for different computer operating systems, and issues of Native American News. Another anonymous FTP site, ftp. netcom. com, contains lists of Native American BBSs and electronic mail list servers under the directory /pub/ am/ amcgee/ indigenous. z List Servers Project staff subscribed to several e- mail listservs. Some listservs are broadcast and others function as electronic discussion groups whereby e- mail posted by one member of a group is sent to every other mem-ber of the group. Some listservs are moderated to screen out offensive language or irrelevant material. Many listserv e- mail messages are archived and thus can be read at any time. As part of project outreach, OTA posted its project proposal on a few listservs. For additional outreach and information- gathering, OTA distributed selected research questions to appropriate e- mail forums, bulletin boards, and news groups ori-ented toward Native Americans and others. To subscribe to a listserv, send the e- mail message "subscribe " to a subscrip-tion e- mail address. In some cases, a personal e- mail address is used instead of . Subscription to a list is necessary to post messages on it. OTA subscribed to the following listservs (with the exception of NATIVEPROFS- L and STRONGDOG-LIST whose membership is restricted) described by the list name, supporting organization and/ or topic, and subscription address.  AISESNET, covers issues relevant to the American Indian Science and Engineering Society (AISES) or to Native Americans more generally, send an in-formal request to demeler@ selway. umt. edu  DRUGS AND ALCOHOL/ AISESNET, an anony-mous list maintained by AISES on drug and alcohol issues, send an informal request to demeler@ sel-way. umt. edu  DRUM GROUPS/ AISESNET, a list maintained by AISES about and for pow- wow drum groups, send an informal request to demeler@ selway. umt. edu  EIRP, Extension Indian Reservation Program of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, listproc@ list-proc. wsu. edu  IND- NET, general American Indian issues main-tained by EIRP, listproc@ listproc. wsu. edu  INDKNOW, indigenous knowledge systems and traditional ecological knowledge and develop-ments, listproc@ u. washington. edu  IROQUOIS, Iroquoian languages, listserv@ vm. utcc. utoronto. ca  NAGPRA- L, Native American graves protection and repatriation, nagpra- l- request@ world. std. com  NAT- EDU, Native education, listserv@ indycms. iupui. edu  NAT- HLTH, Native health, listserv@ tamvm1. ta-mu. edu  NAT- LANG, languages of indigenous peoples, list-serv@ tamvm1. tamu. edu  NATCHAT, general topics of interest to Native Americans, listserv@ tamvm1. tamu. edu  NAT- WORK, work issues of Native Americans, listserv@ tamvm1. tamu. edu  NATIVE- L, general topics of interest to Native Americans, listserv@ tamvm1. tamu. edu  NIRI, broadcasts by the National Indian Policy Cen-ter, listserv@ gwuvm. gwu. edu  NATIVEPROFS- L, a private listserv for Native American professors, listserv@ cornell. edu  MINN- IND, American Indian issues in Minnesota and midwest states, listserv@ vm1. spcs. umn. edu  STRONGDOG- LIST, a private listserv for people interested in the poetry of Turtle Heart, an Ojibway artist and director of the American Indian Comput-er Arts Project, majordomo@ soft21. s21. com (To subscribe write your e- mail address instead of your name in the body of the e- mail.) 130 Appendix A Computer Networking for Native Americans | 125  TRAILS, tribal libraries, maiser@ slis. lib. uoknor. e-du  TRIBALLAW, laws and policy that affect North American Native Americans, listserv@ theci-ty. sfsu. edu z Bulletin Board Systems Project staff also investigated dial- up BBSs. With a modem and terminal (or computer), users can dial into these systems and perform a number of tasks. BBSs often have several electronic discussion groups and/ or real- time chat sessions. In addition, they provide ac-cess to electronic mail, libraries of files available for downloading, and ways to upload or contribute in-formation. The large amount of information in these systems, however, can make it difficult to find items of particular interest among the hundreds of trivial postings and announcements. BBSs vary in their de-gree of organization; most provide a menu, while some offer search capability and/ or an index. A list of BBSs in North America that are either op-erated by or oriented toward indigenous peoples can be found on the anonymous FTP server ftp. net-com. com in the directory pub/ am/ amcgee/ indigenous/ my_ indigenous_ related_ lists/ in the file natvbbs. msg. More than 75 electronic bulletin boards are listed as Native- owned or -operated. z World Wide Web Servers and Browsers OTA also used Mosaic and Netscape, two interactive, user- friendly interfaces (or WWW browsers), to ac-cess WWW and other types of servers on the Internet. WWW browsers combine text and graphics to lead a user to points of interest that may otherwise be diffi-cult to locate. They display menus (e. g., Gopher me-nus or WWW home pages) and allow one to display or download files from FTP, Gopher, and WWW serv-ers in a user- friendly way. For example, OTA staff ac-cessed online information from several tribes, agen-cies, universities, and organizations including the Fourth World Documentation Project and the Oneida Nation of New York. The Fourth World Documentation Project's online archive contains more than 300 documents on Fourth World nations in the Americas, Africa, Asia, Europe, Melanesia, and the Pacific. Included are essays, posi-tion papers, resolutions, treaties, organizational in-formation, and the United Nations documents, speeches, and declarations. This archive is split into directories that contain information on certain geo-graphical areas, such as the FWDP/ Americas/ directo-ry. Under the /Resolutions/ directory there are several areas relating to Native Americans, including Navajo-Hopi Land Commission Papers, the National Con-gress of American Indians Resolutions, Tribal Gov-ernment Resolutions, and much more. This archive can be found at http:// www. halcyon. com/ FWDP/ fwdp. html. 3 It can also be accessed through an anony-mous FTP site at ftp. halcyon. com in the pub/ FWDP directory. The Oneida Nation of New York has created a WWW page to express Oneida history and culture and illustrate ongoing community development. The Oneida Nation wired a housing development with fib-eroptic cable, began developing a native font and in-teractive computer program to revive their language, and created an online Treaties Project. This home page is frequently updated and can be accessed at http:// nysernet. org/ oneida/. After browsing the Internet for a few weeks, OTA project staff developed the Native American Resource Page, a WWW home page with descriptions and links to more than 50 Native American sites. Thereafter, OTA used the home page on a regular basis for re-search purposes. The OTA Native American Resource Page can be accessed at http:// www. ota. gov/ nati-vea. html (see appendix B for a description). LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER NETWORKING Overall, computer networking has been useful to OTA in searching for information, but not without difficul-ties. One problem with Internet searching is that files of information are not well organized or cataloged. 3 Addresses used with WWW browsers are referred to as URLs (Uniform Resource Locators). 131 126 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges While the keyword search capabilities of Veronica and information pointers of WWW home pages are help-ful, more advanced methods for organizing and searching are needed. 4 There is no catalog or directory that organizes all of the materials on the Internet. For now, successful searching is much like solving a mys-tery. Each source, like a clue, leads to another and, in the end, to the material one is seeking. One problem for Native Americans with computer networking is the limited number of Native partici- pants. Many Native Americans do not have or cannot afford computers with modems and/ or access to the In-ternet. The long- distance phone charges required by many dial- in systems are also a barrier. While this is true for Americans in general, the lack of these re-sources appears more pronounced in Native American communities. Also, OTA found that some e- mail list-servs created to discuss Native American concerns ap-parently are dominated by non- Native Americans, and may not reflect Native points of view and experiences. 4 Search tools are under development worldwide. For example, Hyper- G, similar to and compatible with WWW technology, is one such tool under development to better organize and categorize very large amounts of information. The hyper- g discussion group can be subscribed to by sending the e- mail message "subscribe hyper- g " to the e- mail address listproc@ iicm. tu- graz. ac. at. 132 | 127 Appendix B: OTA on the Internet: The Native American Resource Page uring the course of the OTA's study on Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans, the project staff fre-quently used the Internet, a global com-puter network, as a research and outreach tool. Project staff found that Internet access to World Wide Web (WWW) computer sitesP using browsers such as Mosaic, Netscape, or CelloP was the most user- friendly application. These WWW browsers combine text and graphics to lead users through the Internet maze and help lo-cate specific points of interest. WWW browsers help users connect directly to File Transfer Proto-col (FTP), Gopher, Telnet, and WWW sites around the world. To fully use the Internet, OTA staff created the Native American Resource Page. This WWW home page is a directory of many electronic re-sources related to or of interest to Native Ameri-cans and indigenous peoples. In addition to proj-ect information, more than 50 FTP, Gopher and WWW sites can be accessed directly through this page. The Native American Resource Page can be accessed by the public at the following address (known as a uniform resource locator (URL)): http:// www. ota. gov/ nativea. html. The Native American Resource Page is a sub-section of the Office of Technology Assessment WWW home page. The URL for the OTA home page is http:// www. ota. gov/. The structure of the information in the OTA home page is outlined in the chart. 133 128 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges The Native American Resource Page includes short descriptions about each linked site. These descriptions highlight the information contained at each location and provide a hypertext link to that site. Clicking the mouse pointer on the high-lighted text (also known as a hypertext link) con-nects the user to the computer at the remote site. This action begins the information transfer proc- ess. The pictures below illustrate this by showing each computer screen exactly as a user would see it. From the Native American Resource Page the Oneida Nation home page can be selected. Note that when the mouse pointer comes in contact with the hypertext link it changes from an arrow to the image of a hand. 134 Appendix B OTA on the lnternet: The Native American Resource Page 1129 After the user selects the link by clicking the information returned is the home page, Gopher mouse button, a command that is encoded in the . menu, or ITP directory stored at that location. Be-hypertext is sent to the URL or site address re- low is the Oneida Nation home page that has been questing access to the information at that site. The transferred to the user's computer. 135 130 I Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges The Mind, Body, and Spirit page also has a link planation of its significance and uses for the Onei-to information about the Oneida Nation Council da people. This page also contains a link to in-House, The Council House page has a short ex- formation about the legend of the Oneida Stone. 136 Appendix B OTA on the Internet: The Native American Resource Page | 131 >From the first page of the Oneida Nation home page, the user can take a tour of the Oneida Nation by clicking on the Mind, Body, and Spirit link as shown in the example below. This transfers an image of the Oneida Nation Cook and Council Houses and gives a short description of some of the Oneida beliefs. 137 132 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Project Information: The Office of Technology Assessment conducted a study titled Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges, at the request of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs. For further information about this study, the project proposal and summary can be found on OTA's ftp server. OTA Home Page URL: http:// www. ota. gov/ OTA ftp server URL: ftp:// otabbs. ota. gov/ Online Resource Categories: Government Resources Art and Cultural Resources Academic Resources Organizations and Networks Miscellaneous Clicking on the icon will return you to this category listing. 138 Appendix B OTA on the Internet: The Native American Resource Page | 133 GOVERNMENT RESOURCES:  The Administration for Native Americans (ANA) home page provides information about ANA programs and staff. ANA URL: http:// www. acf. dhhs. gov/ ACFPrograms/ ANA  The Indian Health Service (IHS) has established an agency home page that contains detailed information about IHS services and staff, and an on- line tour of IHS. IHS URL: http:// www. tucson. ihs. gov  The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) home page contains information about BIA services and staff, and a link to other BIA WWW resources such as the Division of Energy and Mineral Re-sources home page. BIA URL: http:// info. er. usgs. gov/ doi/ bureau- indian- affairs. html BIA Energy and Mineral Resources URL: http:// snake2. cr. usgs. gov  The U. S. Department of the Interior's Bureau of Land Management has an Internet site called the Native American Information Forum covering topics such as Government to Government relations, the Indian Minerals Steering Committee, and the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. Native American Information Forum URL: http:// napo1. napa. nm. bim. gov/ naif. html  The Bureau of Indian Affairs Office of Indian Education Program (OIEP) has a WWW site that provides information on the mission, goals, programs, and activities of OEIP. Office of Indian Education Programs URL: http:// oiep. unm. edu/ oiep/ home. html  The Oneida Nation of New York home page provides information on the history and culture of the Oneida Nation as well as a project to archive and disseminate Indian treaties. Oneida Nation URL: http:// nysernet. org/ oneida/  The Citizen Band Potawatomi Tribe WWW site includes a brief tribal history, an explanation of the tribal name, a description of the tribal seal, and a link to other Native American resources via the Yahoo Directory. Citizen Band Potawatomi URL: http:// www. qns. com/~ barrettj/ homepage. htm  The United South and Eastern Tribes (USET) home page, sponsored by the Oneida Nation of New York, includes information about the USET organization, membership, resolutions, and links to other Native resources. USET URL: http:// oneida- nation. org/ uset/ uset. htm  The United Keetoowah Band WWW site contains information on the tribal offices, council, committees, and news, and the proceedings of a Native American symposium. The United Keetoowah Band URL: http:// www. uark. edu/ depts/ comminfo/ ukb/ welcome. html  The Great Sioux Nation of Sough Dakota has created a home page that provides a glimpse into Sioux history and culture. Sioux Nation URL: http:// www. state. sd. us/ state/ executive/ tourism/ sioux/ sioux. htm  The Nation of Hawaii WWW site includes information on the legal foundation for the restora-tion of Hawaiian independence. Nation of Hawaii URL: http:// hawaii- nation. org/ nation 139 134 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges ART AND CULTURAL RESOURCES:  The National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI) site provides information and views of some exhibits from the George Gustav Heye Center at the historic Alexander Hamilton U. S. Customs House in lower Manhattan. NMAI URL: http:// www. si. edu/ organiza/ museums/ amerind/ start. htm  The Rainbow Walker Music Home Page specializes in traditional and contemporary Native American music and music education. Rainbow Walker URL: http:// www. teleport. com/~ rnbowlkr/  The Aboriginal Art Gallery includes the works of Canadian artists Sydney Kirkness and Fred Pashe, provided in cooperation with the Aboriginal Super Information Highway. Aboriginal Art Gallery URL: http:// Alpha. Remcan. Ca/ abinfohwy/ aboartgl/  The Native American Literature site, developed by Glenn Welker, includes stories, poetry, mu-sic, speeches, documents, earth prayers, and writings of Native youth. Native American Lit. URL: http:// ukanaix. cc. ukans. edu: 80/~ marc/ natlit/ native_ lit_ main. html  The Canadian Native Art Page highlights the works of artists from the Caribou region of British Columbia, and includes a variety of art forms such as paintings, carvings, chalk, and pen and ink. Canadian Native Art Page URL: http:// vortex. netbistro. com/ pg/ natart. html  The Indian Pueblo Cultural Center page provides information on and directions to each Pueblo, a description of Cultural Center facilities, and lessons on Pueblo etiquette and rules. Indian Pueblo Cultural Center URL: http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ defs/ independent/ PCC/ PCC. html  The American Indian Computer Arts Project (AICAP), created by Turtle Heart, an Ojibwe art-ist, facilitates the exchange of ideas on Native American art topics and issues and sharing of artwork. AICAP URL: http:// www/ mit/ edu: 8001/ activities/ aises/ aicap/ archive/ aicap. html  The Native American Art and Education Center, offered by the Powersource Gallery, includes a collection of Native American artistic symbols. Native American Art and Education Center URL: http:// www. powersource. com/ powersource/ gallery/ default. html  The Ojibwe Language and Culture Page provides an introduction to the Ojibwe language and culture. Ojbiwe Language and Culture URL: http:// www. williamette. edu/~ tjones/ languages/ ojibwe-main. html  The American Indian Culture Page includes links to Native cultural information such as the BIA home page, Institute of American Indian Arts, American Indian Art Museum, and results of a Webcrawler search on Native Americans. American Indian Culture Page URL: http:// LAHS. LosAlamos. K12. nm. us: 80/ sunrise/ work/ piaseckj/ homepage. html 140 Appendix B OTA on the Internet: The Native American Resource Page | 135  The Native American Art Gallery (NAAG) provides authentic, finished American Indian art along with the NAAG newsletter, a statement from the NAAG president, and a guided tour of the gallery. NAAG URL: http:// www. netroam. com/ NAAG/ index. html  The Heard Museum home page provides information about museum programs and activities; the museum specializes in Native American and Southwestern material, both historical and contemporary. Heard Museum URL: http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ defs/ independent/ Heard/ Heard. html  The Electric Gallery provides an opportunity to view and purchase Southwestern artwork from your desktop computer. Electric Gallery URL: http:// www. egallery. com/ egallery/ magic. html  The California Indian Library Collection home page includes information on California Indian cultural materials, tribal bibliographies, a short illustrated text on California Indian basketry, and more. California Indian Library URL: http:// www. mip. berkeley. edu/ cilc/ brochure/ brochure. html  The Wabimeguil Art Home Page features the artwork of the Cree Indian artist Wabimeguil, and offers a tour of the gallery, information on the artist, and a means to purchase art from your desk-top computer. Wabimeguil URL: http:// sol. worldlinx. com/ wabimeguil ACADEMIC RESOURCES:  The National Indian Policy Center (NIPC), located at The George Washington University, maintains a gopher server with information on Indian culture, education, economic develop-ment, environmental protection, and governance, and is accessible through the Library of Con-gress. New and "hot" information can be found under the heading "Useful Data". NIPC URL: gopher:// gwis. circ. gwu. edu.: 70/ 11/ Centers% 2c% 20Institutes% 2c% 20and %20Research% 20at% 20GWU/ Centers% 20and% 20Institutes/ National% 20Indian %20Policy% 20Center  The American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) home page has information on the mission, goals, and organization of AIHEC, and mailing addresses of the AIHEC tribal col-leges. AIHEC URL: http:// www. fdl. cc. mn. us/ AIHEC/ aihec. html  The Salish Kootenai College, located in Pablo, Montana, on the Flathead Indian Reservation, operates a WWW site that provides information on the tribal college mission, goals, programs, and campus. Salish Kootenai College URL: http:// www. skc. edu/  The Native Education Initiative (NEI) site provides information about this collaborative effort among regional educational laboratories funded by the U. S. Department of Education's Office of Educational Research and Improvement, and links to Native educational resources in the Southwestern Region. NEI URL: http:// diogenes. sedl. org/ NEI. html 141 136 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges  Cornell University maintains a file transfer protocol site with information on tribal college ad-dresses, federally recognized tribes (with phone numbers and addresses), examples of Native fonts for Macintosh and Windows, and the Native American Newsletter. Cornell University URL: ftp:// ftp. cit. cornell. edu/ pub/ special/ NativeProfs  The Fond du Lac Tribal and Community College site includes information about the college, an Ojibwe to English (and vice versa) translator, and other American Indian materials. Fond du Lac URL: http:// www. fdl. cc. mn. us  The Educational Native American Network (ENAN), located at the University of New Mexi-co's College of Education, provides access to information about ENAN history, goals, and plans, and to the ENAN hot list that includes connections to organizations involved with Amer-ican Indian education. ENAN URL: http:// oeip. enm. edu/ enan/ home. html  The American Indian College Fund home page includes the annual report and information from a consortium of U. S. colleges operated by tribes for their own students but open to all. American Indian College Fund URL: http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ defs/ independent/ AICF. html  The Navajo Community College, the first tribally controlled college to be established in the United States, maintains a home page with information about the college campus and curricu-lum. Navajo Community College URL: http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ defs/ NCC. html  The Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute (SIPI) also maintains a home page with informa-tion about education programs and curriculum. SIPI URL: http:// kafka. sipi. tec. nm. us/ homepage. html  Native Americans at Princeton, a student organization and support group, maintains a home page with information and links on various Native American topics. Native Americans at Princeton URL: http:// www. princeton. edu/~ naap/ index. html  The Native Book Centre is a mail order house for Native books with an on- line catalog contain-ing over 1,100 titles (books, videos, audio tapes) on Native American topics. The Native Book Centre URL: http:// www. 9to5. com/ 9to5/ NBC  The University of Arizona's American Indian Studies Program has a home page with informa-tion on the program, American Indian Graduate Center, Native American Resource Center, and Pow Wows, and a link to Red Ink, a Native American online publication. The University of Arizona's American Indian Studies Program URL: http:// aisp. harvill. arizo-na. edu Red Ink URL: http:// grad. admin. arizona. edu/ AIGC/ RedInk/ RED_ INK. HOMEPAGE. HTML  How2 is an online tutorial for creating WWW pages and was created to assist Indian schools and students gain access to Internet resources. The How2 URL: http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/~ pgiese  The 'Arctic Circle' WWW Site is intended to increase interest in the peoples and environment of the Arctic and Subarctic regions, with a strong focus on indigenous Alaskans. The Arctic Circle URL: http:// spirit. lib. uconn. edu/ Arctic Circle/ 142 Appendix B OTA on the Internet: The Native American Resource Page | 137 ORGANIZATIONS AND NETWORKS:  The Society of Native American Culture (SNAC) headquartered at North Carolina State Uni-versity maintains a WWW site with information about SNAC goals, officers, members, meet-ings, upcoming events, and links to other Native American organizations. Society of Native American Culture URL: http:// www2. ncsu. edu/ ncsu/ stud_ orgs/ native_ amer-ican/ index. html  The Fourth World Documentation Project (FWDP) maintains an online archive with over 300 documents on Fourth World Nations in the Americas, Africa, Asia, Europe, Melanasia, and the Pacific. The archive includes essays, position papers, resolutions, treaties, and the like, includ-ing Navajo- Hopi Land Commission papers and National Congress of American Indians resolu-tions under FWDP/ Americas/ Resolutions. FWDP URL: http:// www. halcyon. com/ FWDP/ fwdp. html  Electronic Pathways, a group developing a national electronic infrastructure for Native Ameri-cans, has a WWW site with information on Electronic Pathways goals and activities. Electronic Pathways URL: http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ defs/ independent/ ElecPath/ elecpath. html  The American Indian Science and Engineering Society (AISES) WWW site includes informa-tion about AISES goals and local chapters as well as a jobs database and links to other sites. AISES URL: http:// bioc02. uthscsa. edu/ aisesnet. html  The Extension Indian Reservation Program (EIRP) gopher site includes information on tribal and federal courts, grants, events in Indian country, Native American literature, and links to the Native Education Centre, Enviro Link, and the Institute for Global Communications, among others. EIRP URL: gopher:// 134.121.80.31: 70/ 1/ eirp/ eirp. 70  The Native American Net Server is a gopher site with information on Indian law, Native Ameri-can newsletters, job opportunities, Native American fonts, and electronic bulletin board con-nections. Native American Net Server URL: gopher:// alpha1. csd. uwm. edu: 70/ 11/ UWM% 20Informa-tion/ Native% 20American% 20Net% 20Server  The Inter- tribal Network is a gopher site with information on Native American book reviews, law, legislation, and grant opportunities. Inter- tribal Network URL: gopher:// cscns. com: 70/ 11/ News% 20and% 20Information  The Native American Rights Fund (NARF), a nonprofit organization that defends and promotes the legal rights of Indians, maintains a home page describing the NARF mission, goals, and activities. NARF URL: http:// hanksville. phast. umass. edu/ misc/ NARF. html  The NativeNet Information Network, part of NativeNet coordinated by Gary Trujillo, permits users to browse through information resources on indigenous peoples around the world. NativeNet URL: http:// kuhttp. cc. ukans. edu/~ marc/ native_ main. html  The Urban Native Education Society, Native Education Centre maintains a gopher site with re-views of books and films with native themes, a collection of speeches on Native issues, and various FreeNet information. Native Education Centre URL: gopher:// gopher. native- ed. bc. ca 143 138 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges  CodeTalk, named after the Native American code talkers (heroes of two world wars), provides information on government programs, electronic consultation, and links to other Native Amer-ican Internet sites. CodeTalk URL: http:// www. codetalk. fed. us/  The Native American Journalist Association (NAJA) WWW site includes information about NAJA, news from The Native Voice newspaper, and links to Internet sites of interest to Native American journalists. The NAJA URL: http:// www. medill. new. edu/ naja MISCELLANEOUS:  Several Internet listservs, newsgroups, and FTP sites address Native American issues, and can be located under the Native Indian and Alaskan networks heading of the following URL. Misc. URL: ftp:// ftp. netcom. com/ pub/ am/ amcgee/ indigenous/  A list of Bulletin Board Systems/ Services in North America that are either operated by or ori-ented toward indigenous peoples, accessible by modem or Internet, can be located at the follow-ing URL. Misc. URL: ftp:// ftp. netcom. com/ pub/ am/ amcgee/ indigenous/ my_ indigenous_ related_ lists/ natvbbs. msg This Native American Resource Page was prepared by Karla Breitbach (kbreitbach@ ota. gov). Last updated June 27, 1995. For an update on the current status of the Resource Page, or to suggest additions and revisions, please send an Internet message to kbreitbach@ ota. gov. 144 | 139 Appendix C: Native American Telecommunications Infrastructure: Survey Instrument his is an illustrative survey instrument that could be used or adapted by Native organiza-tions and/ or appropriate federal agencies to obtain information on telecommunications in-frastructure and services available to Native Ameri-cans. Thank you for volunteering to respond to this sur-vey. The [Native American organization or federal agency or Native research group] is seeking informa-tion on the telecommunication services available to Native Americans living in rural, remote areas on American Indian reservations, in Alaska Native vil-lages, and in Native Hawaiian communities. This in-formation will help us analyze the potential of tele-communications to meet Native American needs for cultural preservation, education, community well-ness, economic development, and governance. This survey is being provided, via the Internet where feasible, to persons who have volunteered to compile this information for specific reservations, vil-lages, or communities. We will mail or fax the survey to respondents without Internet access. You may re-spond by sending your information to [Internet ad-dress, fax and phone numbers, mailing address of or-ganization or agency conducting the survey]. We would appreciate receiving your response by [date selected]. Thanks very much for your participation. A. NAME AND ADDRESS OF TRIBE, NATION, VILLAGE, OR COMMUNITY: Name_____________________________________ Address ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ Person( s) responding to this survey: Name_____________________________________ Address if different from above_________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ Phone No.__________________________________ Fax No.____________________________________ Internet electronic mail address_________________ Dial- up electronic mail address and phone number___________________________ B. BASIC TELEPHONE PROVIDER AND SERVICE Name and address of telephone company( ies) serving your reservation, village, or community: Name_____________________________________ 145 140 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Address ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ Phone No.__________________________________ Fax No.____________________________________ Is this telephone company (write 'yes' where applica-ble): _____ fully tribally owned? 1 _____ partially tribally owned? _____ tribally operated? _____ staffed by tribal members? What percentage of tribal homes and businesses have telephones? _____ % homes _____ % businesses For homes without phones, which reasons apply? If more than one reason applies, please rank 1, 2, 3 . . . where 1 is the most important. _____ do not want phone _____ phone service too expensive _____ phone service not available _____ other reason (please state) Please indicate the type of telephone services avail-able to tribal homes and businesses (write 'H' for homes, 'B' for businesses, 'H- B' for both). _____ basic single- line service _____ basic party- line service _____ touchtone service _____ call- waiting service _____ voice mail service _____ digital data communication C. OTHER TELECOMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS Please indicate which of the following telecommu-nication and information services are used by your lo-cal high school, community college, library, hospital, and tribal government (write 'S' for local K- 12 school, 'C' for community college, 'L' for library, 'H' for hos-pital, and 'G' for local government): _____ personal computers _____ CD- ROM computer networkingP _____ Internet _____ electronic mail _____ electronic bulletin board videoconferencingP _____ 1- way video, 2- way audio _____ 2- way video _____ slow scan video _____ full motion video _____ over telephone lines _____ over satellite links _____ over fiber optic link D. PERSONAL COMPUTERS IN THE HOME AND BUSINESS Please indicate the percentage of homes and busi-nesses that have microcomputers and modems: percentage with personal computers _____ % homes _____ % businesses percentage with modems _____ % homes _____ % businesses E. CABLE TELEVISION SERVICE Name and address of cable television company( ies) serving your reservation, village, or community: Name _____________________________________ Address____________________________________ __________________________________________ Phone No.__________________________________ Fax No.____________________________________ Is this cable TV company (write 'yes' where applica-ble): _____ fully tribally owned? _____ partially tribally owned? _____ tribally operated? _____ staffed by tribal members? 1 NOTE: Throughout this survey instrument, please interpret "tribe" to mean, as appropriate for your own geographic location, American Indian tribe or Nation, Alaska Native tribe or village, or Native Hawaiian community (to the extent applicable). 146 Appendix C Native American Telecommunications Infrastructure: Illustrative Survey Instrument | 141 What percentage of tribal homes have cable TV? _____ % homes For homes without cable TV, which reasons apply? If more than one reason applies, please rank 1, 2, 3 . . . where 1 is the most important. _____ do not want cable TV _____ cable TV service too expensive _____ cable TV service not available _____ other reason (please state) For areas with cable TV service, please indicate: _____ number of channels of basic TV service _____ number of public access channels _____ number of premium or pay TV channels F. OVER- THE- AIR BROADCASTING SERVICES _____ Does your area receive over- the- air broad-cast television signals (yes or no)? _____ If yes, how many channels can be received? _____ % What percentage of tribal homes have a television? For homes without a TV, which reasons apply? If more than one reason applies, please rank 1, 2, 3 ... where 1 is the most important. _____ do not want TV _____ cannot afford TV set _____ too few or no TV signals available _____ other reason (please state) _____ Does your area receive over- the- air radio sig-nals (yes or no)? _____ If yes, how many stations can be received? _____ % What percentage of tribal homes have a ra-dio? For homes without a radio, which reasons apply? If more than one reason applies, please rank 1, 2, 3 . . . where 1 is the most important. _____ do not want radio _____ cannot afford radio receiver _____ too few or no radio stations available _____ other reason (please state) _____ Does your area have a local radio station (yes or no)? If yes, is this radio station (write 'yes' where applica-ble): _____ fully tribally owned? _____ partially tribally owned? _____ tribally operated? _____ staffed by tribal members? Name and address of local radio station: Name _____________________________________ Address ___________________________________ __________________________________________ Phone No.__________________________________ Fax No.____________________________________ G. DIRECT BROADCAST SATELLITE AND WIRELESS SERVICES Does your area have (write 'yes' where applicable): _____ direct broadcast satellite television service? _____ satellite telephone service? _____ cellular telephone service? _____ pager service? If yes to any of the above, please list the company( ies) providing service below: Name_____________________________________ Address ___________________________________ __________________________________________ Phone: ____________________________________ Fax:_______________________________________ H. TELECOMMUNICATIONS PLANNING Does your tribe, village, or community have (write 'yes' where applicable): _____ a telecommunications plan _____ a telecommunications planning committee or council _____ a telecommunications training program _____ a telecommunications educational program at a community college or high school If yes, please provide details. THANK YOU IN ADVANCE FOR YOUR COOP-ERATION. 147 | 143 Appendix D: Reviewers and Contributors Bob Arnold National Indian Policy Center Washington, DC Carl Artman Federal Affairs Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin Washington, DC Rob Billingsley National Museum of the American Indian Smithsonian Institution Washington, DC John Billison Office of the President/ Vice President Navajo Nation Window Rock, AZ Joseph Binder Rural Development Administration Department of Agriculture Washington, DC Frank Blythe Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium Lincoln, NE Bill Bonner Geographic Data Service Center Office of Trust and Economic Development, Bureau of Indian Affairs Lakewood, CO David O. Born Department of American Indian Studies University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN William Bostwick Computer Information and Communications Division Los Alamos National Laboratory Department of Energy Los Alamos, NM Jim Bradley United Native American Telecommunications Burlington, WA James Broshar Rocky Mountain Telecommunications Association Scottsdale, AZ Arlene Brown Office of Self- Governance Department of the Interior Washington, DC Karen Buller Electronic Pathways Alliance Santa Fe, NM Francine Campone South Dakota School of Mines and Technology Rapid City, SD 148 144 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Martin Cary North Slope Borough School District Barrow, AK Jim Casey Fletcher, Heald, and Hildreth Rosslyn, VA Ken Chandler Rural Utilities Service Department of Agriculture Washington, DC Robey Clark Indian Education Program Northwest Regional Education Laboratory Portland, OR Ray Cook Indigenous Communications Association Hogansburg, NY John Cordova Communications Consultant Albuquerque, NM Gary Coulter on leave from Colorado State University NASA Washington, DC Scott Crawford Nation of Hawai'i Waimanalo, HI Norm DeWeaver Indian and Native American Employment and Training Coalition Washington, DC Roger Dube IBM Manufacturing Technology Center Boca Raton, FL Andrew Duff Forest Products Laboratory USDA Forest Service Madison, WI Jerry Elliott Assistant Chief Technologist NASA Johnson Space Center Houston, TX Gary Emery Forestry Division Hoopa Valley Tribal Council Hoopa, CA Nadine Epstein National Rural Electric Cooperative Association Washington, DC Sandra Ferguson Hobbs, Straus, Dean and Walker Washington, DC Patrick Finn La Plaza Telecommunity Foundation Taos, NM Jack Frisch University of Wisonsin-Green Bay Green Bay, WI Karen Funk Hobbs, Straus, Dean and Walker Washington, DC Angele Gilroy Science Policy Research Division Congressional Research Service Washington, DC John Goes In Center Innovative GIS Solutions Ft. Collins, CO Emilio Gonzalez National Telecommunications and Information Administration Department of Commerce Washington, DC Steve Grey Native American Programs Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Department of Energy Livermore, CA Ladonna Harris Americans for Indian Opportunity Bernalillo, NM Charles Head Cherokee Nation Tahlequah, OK Irene Herder Navajo Nation Washington Office Washington, DC Teresa Hopkins Agency Network Project Navajo Nation AZ, NM, UT 149 Appendix D Reviewers and Contributors | 145 Clifford Houlihan Telecommunications Consultant Inchelium, WA Tim Housare Fort Apache Scout Magazine White River, AZ Wendy Huff Native American SUNY: Western Consortium SUNY College- Fredonia, Fredonia, NY and Tribal Council, Seneca Nation, Irving, NY Carolyn K. Imamura Pacific Basin Development Council Honolulu, HI Jake Jacobson Advanced Communications Laboratory NASA/ Jet Propulsion Laboratory Pasadena, CA Duane G. Johnson GTE Telephone Operations Irving, TX W. Chris Jones GTE Telephone Operations Irving, TX Michael Keith Boston College Boston, MA Jean Kelley Archeological Assistance Division National Park Service Washington, DC Ellen R. Kemper Attorney Santa Fe, NM Clara Sue Kidwell National Museum of the American Indian Smithsonian Institution Washington, DC Denise Bambi Kraus National Indian Policy Center Washington, DC Tommy Lewis Navajo Community College Tsaile, AZ Alex Lookingelk Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium, Lincoln, NE; and EDA Program, Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, Ft. Yates, ND Eugene Lott Educational Native American Network University of New Mexico Albuquerque, NM Phillip Martin Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians Philadelphia, MS Robert Mathews International Community Interconnected Computing eXchange The Pacific Network Consortium, Ltd. Honolulu, HI Marvin P. Mitchell Mayo Clinic Rochester, MN Fred Nahwooksy Oneida Cultural Center Oneida, WI Emo Notah American Indian Science and Engineering Society Boulder, CO Frank Odasz Big Sky Telegraph Western Montana College of the University of Montana Dillon, MT Joseph Orozco California Indian Radio Project and Indigenous Communications Association Hoopa, CA Robert Peters Rural Utilities Service Department of Agriculture Washington, DC Stanley Pino Pueblo of Zia Zia, NM Jean Armour Polly NYSERNet, Inc. Liverpool, NY Larry Povich Common Carrier Bureau Federal Communications Commission Washington, DC 150 146 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Jerry Reynolds First Nations Development Institute Fredericksburg, VA Jeff Richardson Tundra Times Anchorage, AK Frank Riley Information Resources Management Health, Education, and Human Services Group General Accounting Office Washington, DC Roanne Robinson National Telecommunications and Information Administration Department of Commerce Washington, DC Jorge Reina Schement School of Communication Information and Library Studies Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ Robert Shelton Gila River Telecommunications, Inc. Chandler, AZ Ben Sherman Western American Indian Chamber Denver, CO Quanah Stamps Native American Affairs Small Business Administration Washington, DC John Tahsuda Holland and Hart Denver, CO Don Thornton American Indian TV Bellflower, CA Frank Tyro Salish Kootenai College Pablo, MT Dan Umstead Oneida Indian Nation of New York Oneida, NY Elizabeth Valinoti National Exchange Carrier Association Washington, DC Roger Walke Congressional Research Service Washington, DC Orna Weinroth National Indian Policy Center Washington, DC Beth Wenstrom Land Titles and Records Bureau of Indian Affairs Sacramento, CA Doni Wilder Northwest Portland Area Indian Health Board Portland, OR J. D. Williams Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority Eagle Butte, SD OTA WORKSHOP ON FEDERAL AGENCY PROGRAMS SERVING NATIVE AMERICANS James Cain Information Resources Management Office Bureau of Indian Affairs Department of the Interior Veletta Canouts Archeological Assistance Division National Park Service Department of the Interior Thomas Dowd Indian and Native American Programs Division Office of Special Targeted Programs Employment and Training Administration Department of Labor James Garvie Office of Information Resources Management Indian Health Service Department of Health and Human Services 151 Appendix D Reviewers and Contributors | 147 Charles Geboe Elementary and Secondary Branch Office of Indian Education Programs Bureau of Indian Affairs Department of the Interior Richard Harland Public Telecommunications Facilities Program Office of Telecommunications and Information Applications National Telecommunications and Information Administration Department of Commerce John Jollie Division of Indian Business Utilization Office of Economic Development Bureau of Indian Affairs Department of the Interior Robert Kelly Local Technical Assistance Program Office of Technology Applications Federal Highway Administration Department of Transportation Jim Kohlmoos Office of Indian Affairs Department of Education Margo Leydic- Boyd Office of Program Operations Economic Development Administration Department of Commerce Millie Mateu National Aeronautics and Space Administration Sharon McCully Administration for Native Americans Department of Health and Human Services William Mehojah Office of Indian Education Programs Bureau of Indian Affairs Department of the Interior Sam Morgan Rural Utilities Service Department of Agriculture Caren Rothstein American Indian Environmental Office Environmental Protection Agency Nora Sabelli Networking Infrastructure for Education Education and Human Resources Directorate National Science Foundation Tom Tate Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service Department of Agriculture Robert Washington Office of Indian Education Department of Education Richard Wilson Division of Energy and Mineral Resources Office of Trust Responsibility Bureau of Indian Affairs Department of the Interior OTA SITE VISIT TO KOTZEBUE, ALASKA Richard H. Erlich State of Alaska Superior Court Sonny Harris Maniilaq Association Lynn Johnson Chukchi College Frank Kramer Maniilaq Association Hospital Ben Phillips OTZ Telephone Cooperative Gladys Pungowiyi Maniilaq Association Whitham D. Reeve Reeve Consulting Engineering OTA SITE VISIT TO FLATHEAD AND CROW INDIAN RESERVATIONS, MONTANA Patty Claremont Bureau of Indian Affairs James D. Ereaux Salish Kootenai College Flathead Indian Reservation Paul Eve Salish Kootenai College Flathead Indian Reservation Kevin Howlett Indian Health Service Flathead Indian Reservation 152 148 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Jay Jolly St. Luke Community Hospital Joseph McDonald Salish Kootenai College Flathead Indian Reservation Earl R. Owens Blackfoot Telephone Cooperative, Inc. Michael Pablo Flathead Indian Reservation Frank Tyro Salish Kootenai College Flathead Indian Reservation Janine Windy- Boy Little Big Horn College Crow Indian Reservation OTA SITE VISIT TO THE DAKOTAS Oglala Lakota College, Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, Kyle, SD Reginald Cedar Face Indian Health Service Anthony J. Fresquez Oglala Lakota College John Haas Oglala Lakota College Ted Hamilton Learning Resource Center Oglala Lakota College Jeff Fransen Office of Sen. Tom Daschle David Osborne Indian Health Service Lamoine Pulliam Oglala Lakota College Jack R. Runnels Economic Development Authority Oglala Sioux Tribe Pat Spears Presentation Health Systems Art Zimiga Public Relations Oglala Lakota College Sinte Gleska University, Rosebud Indian Reservation, Rosebud, SD Robin Ball Rosebud Sioux Tribe Ted Bogda St. Francis Indian School Rod Bordeaux Indian Health Service Dave Brushbreaker Tribal Education Rosebud Sioux Tribe Jeff Fransen Office of Sen. Tom Daschle George Ludvik Management Information Systems Sinte Gleske University Robert D. Moore Sinte Gleske University Al Spang Bureau of Indian Affairs Pat Spears Presentation Health Systems Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe, Tribal Administration Building, Eagle Butte, SD Ed H. Banley Management Information Systems Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Dean C. Hubbard Consultant to Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Bill Jandreau Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority Carol Little Wounded Cheyenne River Community College Russell J. McClure Bureau of Indian Affairs Pat Spears Presentation Health Systems Caroline Thorsen Bureau of Indian Affairs 153 Appendix D Reviewers and Contributors | 149 J. D. Williams Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority Standing Rock College, Standing Rock Indian Reservation Ft. Yates, ND Dave Archambault Standing Rock College Alex Lookingelk Tribal Planning Standing Rock Sioux Tribe Madonna Peltier Yawakie US West Communications Turtle Mountain Community College, Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation, Belcourt, ND Stan Campbell Turtle Mountain Community School Carol Davis Turtle Mountain Community College Rose Linnertz Turtle Mountain Community College Duane Marcellais Indian Health Service Leland Nadeau Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians Randy Olson Student Robert Upton Turtle Mountain Community College Madonna Peltier Yawakie US West Communications OTA SITE VISIT TO THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS University of Hawaii at Manoa, School of Medicine, Oahu Island Christian L. Gulbrandsen School of Medicine Gwyn Hirasa GTE Hawaiian Telephone Dana Ichinotsubo School of Medicine Roy Kitagawa GTE Hawaiian Telephone Burt Lum GTE Hawaiian Telephone Clifford M. Miyake GTE Hawaiian Telephone Dexter Wong Apple Computer, Inc. Sei Jeong Yee Four D Computers Jon N. Yokoyama GTE Hawaiian Telephone Maui Research and Technology Park, Kihei, Maui Island Bob Agres Community Based Economic Development Program State of Hawaii William Chang Hina- malailene David B. Fisher Small Business Development Center Colette Y. Machado Alan T. Murakami Christine van Bergeijk Office of Hawaiian Affairs State of Hawaii Kamehameha Schools, Honolulu, Oahu Rodney Park Information Systems Lance Tachino Educational Technology Garrett Yoshimoto Communications Support Hawaii Information Network Corporation, Honolulu Allan V. Kickertz 154 150 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Arthur F. Koga Craig S. Yonamine Comsat Earth Station, Paumalu, Oahu Stan Holt Alu Like, Inc., Honolulu Haunani Apoliona Loretta Beralas David Kamiyama Jonn Logan Jim Moikeha Analika Nahulu Herb Randall Robert M. Velligas Winona Whitman Hawaiian Community Service Providers (at Alu Like), Honolulu Haunani Apoliona Alu Like, Inc. Tom Dinell Catholic Charities Babette L Galang Office of Hawaiian Affairs State of Hawaii Heather Haunani Giugni Juniroa Productions, Inc. Mahealani Kamauu Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation Analika Nahulu Hale Ola Hoopakolea, Inc Winona E. Rubin Department of Human Services State of Hawaii Office of Hawaiian Affairs, State of Hawaii, Honolulu Keola Donaghy Hale Kuamoo Lui K. Hokoana Maui Community College Dennis Kawahasada Polynesian Voyaging Society Keiki Kawaiaea Hale Kuamoo David Lassner Information Technology University of Hawaii James Perry Office of Hawaiian Affairs University of Hawaii at Hilo, The Big Island Raymond Busniewski Gerald DeMello University of Hawaii at Hilo Jim Hunt Honokaa High School David Lovell Keao NeSmith Robert T. Okuda Media Services University of Hawaii at Hilo David Sing Center for Gifted Hawaiian Children University of Hawaii at Hilo Hui Malama Ola Na Oiwi, Hilo, The Big Island Everett "Sonny" Kahiliokalani Kinney Honokaa High School, Honokaa, The Big Island Jim Hunt Ku Kahakalau GTE Hawaiian Telephone Lester K. W. Chu Clifford Miyake William R. Santos Jenny M. Wong Jon H. Yokoyama Tripler Army Hospital, Honolulu Cal Delaplain Tripler Hospital U. S. Army Tommy Driskill Tripler Hospital U. S. Army 155 Appendix D Reviewers and Contributors | 151 James E. Hastings Tripler Hospital U. S. Army Charles Jones Tripler Hospital U. S. Army Barry Raff Veterans Administration Robert Whang Veterans Administration Telecommunications Carriers, Honolulu Bruce M. Holdridge Oceanic Cable TV Company (Time Warner) J. Douglas Ing, Esq. Watanabe, Ing & Kawashima Linda O'Day AT& T Economic Development Groups, Honolulu Stephen B. Harkness Pacific Telecommunications Council Carolyn K. Imamura Pacific Basin Development Council Rita Hocog Inos Pacific Region Educational Laboratory Brian K. Martin Martin Information Systems, Ltd. Michael R. Ogden Center for Pacific Islands Studies University of Hawaii at Manoa JoAnn Tsark Governor's Pacific Health Promotion and Development Center Molokai Island Donna Haytko- Paoa Maui Community College W. C. McElhannon Mokokai General Hospital Oboy Pedro Alu Like John R. Sabas Department of Business Economic Development, and Tourism State of Hawaii Clyde Sakamoto Maui Community College Kauai Community College, Lihue, Kauai Island Ilei Beniamina Kauai Community College Dennis Chun Kauai Community College David Iha Kauai Community College Tom Kajihara Kauai Community College Sue Kanoho Kauai Economic Development Board Earl Nishiguchi Kauai Community College Tamara Oura Kauai Economic Development Board Glenn H. Sato Kauai Office of Economic Development Francis Takahashi Kauai Community College OTA SITE VISIT TO NEW YORK STATE NYSERNet Waldo Babcock NYSERNet, Inc. Liverpool, NY Wendy Huff Native American SUNY: Western Consortium SUNY College- Fredonia, Fredonia, NY and Tribal Council, Seneca Nation, Irving, NY Jim Luckett NYSERNet, Inc. Liverpool, NY Jean Armour Polly NYSERNet, Inc. Liverpool, NY 156 152 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Cornell University Jose Barreiro Akwe: kon Press Cornell University Ithaca, NY Susan Dixon Akwe: kon Press Cornell University Ithaca, NY Laura Lee LaFrance Student College of Human Ecology Cornell University, Ithaca, NY Robert Rich Business Retention and Expansion Program Cornell Local Government Program Cornell University, Ithaca, NY Carla Shafer The Municipal Information Exchange Cornell Local Government Program Cornell University, Ithaca, NY Onondaga Nation Virginia Abrams Onondaga Nation Nedrow, NY Ray Cook Indigenous Communications Association Hogansburg, NY Bernadette Johnson Onondaga Nation School Nedrow, NY Vincent Johnson Onondaga Nation Nedrow, NY Barbara Parry Onondaga Nation School Nedrow, NY Irving Powless, Jr. Onondaga Nation Nedrow, NY Audrey Shenandoah Onondaga Nation Nedrow, NY Rosemary Vahey LaFayette Junior Senior High School LaFayette, NY Oneida Nation Oneida Nation Terri Damon NYSERNet Dan Garrow Oneida Nation Oneida, NY Ken Phillips Oneida Nation Oneida, NY Jean Armour Polly NYSERNet Dale R. Rood Oneida Nation Oneida, NY Dan Umstead Oneida Nation Oneida, NY Warren Worth Oneida Nation Oneida, NY Mark Ziemba Oneida Nation Oneida, NY 157 | 153 Appendix E: Boxes, Figures, and Tables BOXES Chapter 1 1- 1: A Sample of Native American Telecommunications Activities 4 1- 2: Matching Telecommunications Technology with Native Needs 8 1- 3: Native Voices on Telecommunications 13 Chapter 2 2- 1: Historical Note: Repression of Indian Culture 19 2- 2: Native American Mobility 22 2- 3: Technology for Reestablishing 'Olelo Hawai'i, the Hawaiian Language 24 2- 4: The Internet, the World's Largest Internetwork 25 2- 5: The Online National Archeological Database 27 2- 6: Protection of Culturally Sensitive Information: Project Jukebox 31 2- 7: Information Technologies and Tribal Libraries 32 2- 8: American Indian TV: Native Programming on a Shoestring 36 Chapter 3 3- 1: Slow Growth of Native Radio 45 3- 2: Native Television 47 3- 3: The AIHEC Distance- Learning Network 49 3- 4: How Do Native Americans Get Internet Access? 60 3- 5: UNAN and UNATP Native American Telecommunications Entrepreneurship 64 3- 6: Forward- Thinking Community- Building 71 158 154 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Chapter 5 5- 1: Navajo Nation Telecommunications Partnerships and Planning 98 5- 2: First Americans Commission for Telecommunications 100 5- 3: Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority: A Catalyst for Reservation Development 104 5- 4: Keys to Building Telecommunications Infrastructure in Native American Communities 118 5- 5: Electronic Clearinghouse Activities of the National Indian Policy Center 122 FIGURES Chapter 1 1- 1: Tribal Telecommunity 9 1- 2: Front Page of OTA's Native American Resource Page on the World Wide Web 15 TABLES Chapter 1 1- 1: Population Profile of Native Americans 2 Chapter 3 3- 1: Characteristics of Noncommercial Native Radio Stations 46 159 | 155 ndex A Aberdeen Area Tribal Chairmen's Health Board, 14 Aboriginal Film and Video Artists Alliance, 28 activism/ activists/ advocates, 13,38,95,97,116,120 Administration for Native Americans. See U. S. Department of Health and Human Services Admissions Act, 78 Advanced Network Services, 61 Advanced Research Projects Agency. See U. S. Department of Defense Affiliated Tribes of Northwest Indians, 4 Agency- specific strategies, 107- 109 Ahtna, Inc., 76 AIHEC. See American Indian Higher Education Consortium AIO. See Americans for Indian Opportunity AIROS. See American Indian Radio on Satellite AISES. See American Indian Science and Engineering Society Alaska, 4,10,20,37,46,47,48,55,57,76,106 Alaska Federation of Natives, 7,52,76,99,119 Alaska Native, See Native American Alaska Native village( s), 2,43,75,76 Alaska Native Youth Media Insitute, 29 Alaska Public Radio Network, 29 Alaska Statewide Library Electronic Doorway, 32 Aleut, See Native American Aleut Corp., 76 All- Indian Pueblo Council, Inc., 100 Alu Like, 8,13 American Antiquities Act, 27 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 120 American Indian, See Native American American Indian College Fund, 21 American Indian Higher Education Consortium, 7,44,47,48,49,69,98 American Indian Radio on Satellite, 31,41,45,69,102 American Indian Religious Freedom Act. See Indian law American Indian Resource Council, 21 American Indian Ritual Object Repatriation Foundation, 21 American Indian Science and Engineering Society, 2,7,21,51,98,99,119,120 American Indian Science and Technology Education Consortium, 52 American Indian Telecommunications Satellite Demonstration Project, 100 American Indian TV, 34,36 American Library Association, 119 Americans for Indian Opportunity, 3,4,7,21,99,109, 119 American Somoa, 13,55,121 America Online, 60 ANA. See U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Native Americans Annette Islands Reserve, 22,76 Annexation of Hawaii, 78 Apology to Native Hawaiians, 79 Apple Computer, 30,53 Apple Crossroads educational program, 53 Apple Library of Tomorrow program, 30,31 Arapaho, 113 Archeological Resources Protection Act, 27 Arctic Slope Regional Corp., 76 Arizona, 4,7,23,24,28,43,46,47,48,49,52,88,89 Arizona State University, 101 Army Corps of Engineers. See U. S. Department of Defense ARPANET, 25 Assimilation. See Culture Association of American Indian Physicians, 101 Association on American Indian Affairs, 21 Athabascan, 76 AT& T, 64 AT& T Long Lines ship, 110 160 156 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Australian National University, 25 Authenticity. See Culture B Backbone. See Internet Bandwidth. See Telecommunications technology BARRNET. See Bay Area Regional Research Network Bay Area Regional Research Network, 59,61 BBN Internet Services Corp., 61 BBS. See Computer networking, Bulletin Board Service Bering Straits Native Corp., 76 BIA. See U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs BIA Division of Energy and Mineral Resources. See U. S. Department of the Interior BIA Information Resources Management program, 107 Big Island, 23,79 Big Sky Telegraph. See Computer networking Bishop Museum, 34,37 Blackfeet, 47,48 Blandon Foundation, 28 Block grant, 91,104,106 Bristol Bay Native Corp., 76 Broadcast license. See Telecommunications policy Browser. See Internet Buffalo, 95,104 Business, 10,43 C California, 29,36,43,46,49,52,59,62,66 California Institute of Technology, 98 California State University, 100,121 Calista Corp., 76 Captain James Cook, 77- 78 CD- ROM. See Telecommunications technology, Compact- Disc Read- Only Memory Cellular, See Telecommunications technology Cellular license. See Telecommunications policy Census. See Native American( s), U. S. Census Census Bureau. See U. S. Department of Commerce Center for Civic Networking, 44,119 Characteristics of noncommercial Native radio sta-tions, 46 Cherokee, 4,36,52,66,67 Cheyenne, 48,113 Cheyenne River Cable TV, 104 Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Telephone Authority, 4,10,63,103,104- 105,112 Chugach Natives, Inc., 76 Chukchi College, 37 Clean Air Act, 86 Clean Water Act, 86 Cleveland Free- Net. See Computer Networking Code of Federal Regulations, 67 Coeur D'Alene Tribe, 63 Colorado, 5,36,43,46,52,60,70 Comanche, 113 Commerce Business Daily, 58 Communications Act of 1934. See Telecommunica-tions policy Community, 2,39- 40 Community building, 39- 71 Community communication center, 8,30,43,69- 70,103 Community network. See Computer networking Competitive access (carriers), 12,116 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 86 Compuserve, 60 Computer( s). See Telecommunications technology Computer networking, 2,35,40,50- 53,55,58,59, 66- 68,123- 126 AISESnet, 51 Blacksburg Electronic Village, 60,70 Big Sky Telegraph, 60,69,70,119 Boulder Community Network, 60,70 Bulletin Board Service/ System, 51,123,125 Cleveland Free- Net, 70 CommerceNet, 25,59 Community network( ing), 9,44,69- 71,101 Criteria (for community network growth), 70- 71 Educational Native American Network, 51,109 Electronic mail, 25,30,51,123 Enterprise Integration Network, 59 ETAnet, 61 Hawaii FYI, 4,24,81 INDIANnet, 5 Leoki, 4,23- 24 Limitations of, 125- 126 Local Area Networks, 40,69 NSFNet, 61 Office of Self- Governance Database, 67 Prairienet, 60,70 Taos Telecommunity, 60,70 Telnet, 25,51 Wide Area Networks, 40,69 See also Telecommunications technology See also Internet Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, 119 COMSAT, 108 Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, 83 Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis, 4,7 Congressional Record, 67 Consortium for School Networking, 119 Cook Inlet Region, Inc., 76 161 Index | 157 Cornell University, 101 Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 12,31,38,45,46,105 Council of State Governments, 99 CPB Native American Listening Data Project, 43 Creek Nation, 63 Crow, 85,113 Crow Indian Reservation, 33,50,100 Crownpoint Institute of Technology, 4,98 Crownpoint Pilot Project, 4 Cultural property rights. See Information policy. Culture, 2- 38,94 Assimilation, 18,74,80 Authenticity, 18- 20 Ethnic fraud, 35 Genealogy, 36- 37 Historical interpretation/ history, 21,30- 31 Identity, 19,119 Interconnectedness, 21 Language, 21- 26,37 Negative stereotypes, 18 Public awareness, 34- 35 Repression, 19 Sacred sites, 26- 27 Spirituality, 33 Tradition, 17 Values, 17,18 Cyberspace, 25,112,119,120 D Demographics. See Native Americans Digital. See Telecommunications technology Distance Delivery Consortium, 55 Distance education, See Telecommunications technology Distance learning, See Telecommunications technol-ogy, Distance education Doyon, Ltd., 76 Dull Knife Community College, 48 E Eastern Band of Cherokee, 13,47,48 EBT. See Telecommunications technology, Elec-tronic benefits transfer Economic development, 58- 65,62- 65,102 Economies of scale, 43,91 Educational and Cultural Organization to Advance Restoration and Transition, 4 Education and Research, 44- 54 EIRP. See Extension Indian Reservation Program Electric power utilities, 12,112 Electronic benefits transfer. See Telecommunica-tions technology Electronic clearinghouse, 11,53,106,122 Electronic delivery of services, 91 Electronic Frontier Foundation, 119 Electronic Pathways Alliance, 5,98 E- mail. See Computer networking Electronic mail Empowering Native American telecommunications, 95- 104 Empowerment, 7,35- 38,95 ENAN. See Computer networking, Educational Na-tive American Network Energy Policy Act, 112 Enterprise Integration Network. See Computer net-working Enterprise Integration Technologies, 59 Entrepreneur( ship), 9,10,63,64,103 Environment, 18,20 Environmental initiatives, 20 Environmental Protection Agency, 85- 87,105 EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency EPA Tribal Operations Committee, 86 Eskimo, See Native American Ethnic fraud. See Culture Extension Indian Reservation Program, 4,61,123 F Fax. See Telecommunications technology, Telefacsi-mile FCC. See Federal Communications Commission FCC Common Carrier Docket, 115 FCC policy on minorities. See Telecommunications policy Federal Communications Commission, 11,12,73,87- 90,92,103,108,111,114- 115 Federally recognized. See Indian policy Federal Register, 67 Federated States of Micronesia, 121 Federal trust land( s). See Indian policy Federal trust responsibility. See Indian policy First Americans Commission for Telecommunica-tions, 100 First Nations Development Institute, 101 First Native American Telecommunications Forum, 52 Flathead Indian Reservation, 6,48,83,101 Florida, 47,89 Fond- Du- Lac Community College, 52 Fort Apache Indian Reservation, 24,48 Fort Berthold Indian Reservation, 89 Fort Mojave Telecommunications, 4 Fort Mojave Tribe, 89 Forward- thinking, 71 Fourth Museum, 34 Fourth World Documentation Project, 125 Freedom of Speech/ Press. See Information policy 162 158 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Free- Net TM , 70 Free speech. See Information policy, Freedom of Speech/ Press Frequency spectrum. See Telecommunications policy FTP. See Internet, File Transfer Protocol G Gaming, 12,62- 63 GDSC. See U. S. Department of the Interior, BIA Geographic Data Service Center GDSC National Indian Energy and Mineral Re-sources Database, 109 GDSC National Indian Oil and Gas Evaluation and Management System, 109 GDSC National Indian Seismic Evaluation System, 109 Genealogy. See Culture Genealogical information system. See Telecommu-nications technology Geographic Data Service Center. See U. S. Depart-ment of the Interior George Washington University, 101,121 Gila River Telecommunications, Inc., 4,88 Gila River Tribe, 88 GIS. See Telecommunications technology, Geo-graphic Information System Gopher. See Internet Governance, 65- 68,102 Grassroots, 7,10,67,69,80,95,97,101,119 Grassroots telecommunications plan, 7 GTE Hawaiian Telephone Co., 110 GTE Telephone, 114 Guam, 13,55,121 H Harvard University, 101,121 Hawaii, 37,77,93,110 Hawaiian Genealogy Project, 37 Hawiian Homes Commission Act, 77 Hawaiian Information Network Corporation, 79,81 Hawaiian Kingdom, 2,79 Hawaiian language, 23- 24 Hawaiian Language Center, 4,24 Hawaiian Lexicon Committee, 4,24 Hawaii FYI. See Computer networking Hawaii Online, 4 Hawaii Department of Education, 24 Hawaii Department of Hwaiian Home Lands, 37 Hawaii Department of Health, 37 Hawaii Interactive Television System, 79,80 Hawaii Population Database, 37 Hawaii State Archives, 37 Hawaii State Office of Hawaiian Affairs, 78 Hawaii Wide Area Integrated Information Access Network, 79 Heard Museum, Health care, 54- 58 High Performance Computing and Communications Program, 56 Historical context: American Indians and Alaska Natives 74- 77 Historical context: Native Hawaiians, 77- 80 Historical interpretation. See Culture Hobbs, Straus, Dean, & Walker, 89,112 Home page, 3,4 American Indian Science and Engineering Soci-ety, 5 American Indian College Fund, 5 Bureau of Indian Affairs, 5 BIA Division of Energy and Mineral Resources, 5 Electronic Pathways Alliance, 5 Heard Museum, 5,34, Indian Health Service, 5 Indian Pueblo Cultural Center, 5 Nation of Hawai'i, 4 National Indian Policy Center, 5 Native American Rights Fund, 5 Navajo Community College, 5 Oneida Nation, 4,29,62,117 Oneida Nation (online) Treaties Project, 125 OTA Native American Resource Page, 14,15,106,122,125 Sioux Nation, 5 USDA Extension Indian Reservation Program, 5 Honor Our Neighbor's Origins and Rights, 21 Hoopa Valley Tribal Council, 62 Hopi, 48 html. See Internet, Hypertext Markup Language Hualapai Reservation, 23 Humboldt State University, 100 Hypertext Markup Language, See Internet I IBM, 61 Idaho, 4,63 Identity. See Culture. IHS. See U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Indian Health Service Illinois, 60,70 Indian, See Native American Indian Arts and Crafts Act. See Indian law Indian Community Development Block Grant, 104 Indian Health Service. See U. S. Department of Health and Human Services Indian law, 1,11,80- 83,90,92 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 76,82 Indian Arts and Crafts Act, 35 Indian Child Welfare Act, 75 163 Index | 159 Indian Civil Rights Act, 75 Indian Environmental General Assistance Act, 86 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 117 Indian Regulatory Enhancement Act, 86 Indian Religious Freedom Act, 27,75 Indian Removal Act, 74 Indian Reorganization Act, 74,82 Indian Self- Determination and Education Assist-ance Act, 66 National Museum of the American Indian Act, 27 Native American Graves Protection and Repatri-ation Act, 26,27,35 Native American Languages Act, 37 State laws, 112 Indian policy, 83- 87 Domestic dependent sovereigns, 82 EPA's policy, 85- 87 Federal agency, 84- 87,92 Federally recognized, 1,80,82,108,111 Federal trust land( s), 2,11 Federal trust responsibility, 38,77,80- 81,90,106,110 Forced removal, 80 Government- to- government relationship, 75,81 Jurisdiction (federal/ state/ tribe), 112 Presidential policy, 83- 84 Self- determination, 1- 2,11,67,75,80,82- 83,89,90,107,110,119 Self- governance, 67 Sovereignty, 1- 2,11,73,79,80- 82,90,110 State- recognized, 108 Termination, 74,80 Treaties, 74- 77,80,82 Indigenous Broadcast Center, 28,29 Indigenous Communications Association, 7,28,31,45,98,119 Indigenous Environmental Network, 21 Indigenous Women's Network, 21 Information policy, 12- 13,18,118- 120 Cultural property rights, 12,92,119 Freedom of Speech/ Press, 12,35,119 Integrity, 33 Intellectual property rights, 12,92,118 Privacy, 12,26,33,118- 119 Release agreement, 31 Security, 12,118 Information superhighway, 2,7,70 Information systems. See Telecommunications technology Infrastructure, See Telecommunications infrastruc-ture Infrastructure Support Program for HBCUs/ MIs, 52 Innovative GIS Solutions, 62 Institute of American Indian Arts, 21,28 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 120 Integrated delivery of services, 7 Integrated infrastructure development, 8,101- 103 Intel Corp., 120 Intellectual property rights. See Information policy Interagency federal strategy and funding, 104- 109 Interagency strategy, 10,105- 107 Interconnectedness. See Culture Internet, 3,4,24,25,51,59,60,67,91,117,123 Backbone, 25 Browsers, 4,25,51,125 Cornell FTP server, 124 Department of Commerce Gopher, 110 Distance Education Online Symposium, 44 Extension Indian Reservation Service Gopher, 123 File Transfer Protocol, 25,123 Gopher, 5,25,30,51,66,123 GPO Access, 67 House of Representatives Gopher, 67 Hypertext Markup Language, 40 Library of Congress's "Thomas" system, 67 List server, 24,25,30,124- 125 Mosaic, 125 National Indian Policy Center Gopher, 123 Netscape, 125 Project Vote Smart Gopher, 67 SLIP/ PPP connectivity, 51 Uniform Resource Locator, 4 Veronica, 123 World Wide Web, 15,25,29,30,40,66,123,125 See also Home page See also Computer networking See also Telecommunications technology Internet for Minnesota Schools, 30 Internet Protocol, 25 Internetwork, 25 Intertribal Geographic Information Systems Coun-cil, 5,7,61,98 INDIANnet. See Computer networking IP. See Internet Protocol Integrated Service Digital Network, See Telecommunications technology ISDN. See Telecommunications technology, Integrated Service Digital Network Isolation. See Native American( s) J JASON project, 49- 50 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 98 J. M. Kaplan Foundation, 30 164 160 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Joint federal- state telecommunications board. See Telecommunications policy K Kansas, 49 Kapiolani Community College, 79 Kauai, 37,79,96 Kauai Community College, 79,96 Kingdom of Hawai'i. See Hawaiian Kingdom Kiosks. See Telecommunications technology Kiowa, 113 Kohala Mission School, 77 Koniag, Inc., 76 Kotzebue public library, 37 Kula Kaiapuni Hawai'i program, 24 L Lakota- Sioux, 104 Language. See Culture LAN. See Computer networking, Local Area Net-work Lanai, 79 LANL. See Department of Energy, Los Alamos National Laboratory Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. See De-partment of Energy Leader( ship), 2,7,8,10,96,98- 101,116 Leoki. See Computer networking Library, 30,32 List server. See Internet Little Big Horn College, 33,87 LLNL. See Department of Energy, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Local Area Network, See Computer networking Local sources of telecommunications expertise, 7 Long- distance telephone (carriers), 116 Los Alamos National Laboratory. See Department of Energy Lottery, 63 Lummi Indian Reservation, 64 M Matrix, 25 Maui, 37,65,79 Maui Community College, 79 Maui Research and Technology Center, 65 Mayo Clinic, 56- 57,98,101 MCI, 61 MegaBingo, 63 Mescalero Apache, 48 Metlakatla, 76 Metlakatla Indian Reservation, 48 Michigan 48,49 Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation, 59 Microsoft, 61 Minnesota, 28,30,49,52,56 Mississippi, 47,60 Mississippi Band of Choctaw, 47,60 Mobility. See Native American( s) Mojave Community College, 48 Mojave Indian Reservation, 48 Molokai, 3,37 Molokai High School, 3 Montana, 4,5,33,48,49,60,69,70,83,87,100,101 Morino Institute, 44,70- 71,101 Motorola, 98 Multimedia, See Telecommunications technology N NAGPRA. See Indian law, Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act NANA Region Corp., 76 NAPBC. See Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium NAPBC Catalog of Programming, 34 NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Admin-istration NASA Science Internet, 4,52 Nation of Hawai'i, 4 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 4,52,98- 99,100,105 National Alliance for Media Arts and Culture, 29 National Anthropological Archives, 27 National Archeological Database, 26, 27 National Center for American Indian Enterprise De-velopment, 62 National Conference of State Legislatures, 99 National Congress of American Indians, 2,8,99,119,125 National Endowment for the Arts, 29,38,105 National Environmental Policy Act, 27 National Exchange Carrier Association, 113,114,116 National Executive Education Program for Native American Leadership, 101 National Historic Preservation Act, 27,85 National Indian Energy and Mineral Resources Da-tabase, 109 National Indian Oil and Gas Evaluation and Man-agement System, 109 National Indian Policy Center, 52,66,96,101,122 National Indian Seismic Evaluation System, 109 National Indian Youth Council, 101 National Information Infrastructure. See Telecom-munications policy National Information Infrastructure Advisory Coun-cil, 110 165 Index | 161 National Museum of the American Indian, 34,38 National Museum of the American Indian Act. See Indian law National Park Service, See U. S. Department of the Interior National Performance Review, 105,107 National Public Radio, 41 National Public Telecomputing Network, 70,119 National Science Foundation, 25,52,60,67,105,120 National Telecommunications and Information Administration, See U. S. Department of Commerce Native America Calling, 34 Native American( s), 1- 2,14,74- 77 Alaska Native, 1- 2,73- 74 Alaska Native Village Statistical Area, 2,22 Aleut, 2,73- 77 American Indian, 1- 2,73- 77 BIA high school survey, 19 Demographics, 18,22 Eskimo, 2,41,73- 77 High school drop- out/ graduation rate, 18,93 Indian, 2,73- 77 Isolation, 20- 21 Mobility, 22 Mortality rates (IHS report), 94 Native Hawaiian, 1- 2,73,77- 80 New Mexico telephone survey, 114,117- 118 Needs, 14 Population profile, 2 Poverty rate, 18,103 Suicide rate, 18,19 Telephone penetration, 43,113- 114 Tribal Designated Statistical Area, 2 Tribal Jurisdictional Statistical Area, 2,22 Unemployment rate, 2,93,103 U. S. Census, 19,22,37,77,93,113,114 Well- being, 21,94,102,110 Native American Bar Association, 101 Native American Council, 21 Native American Journalists Association, 101 Native American Producers Alliance, 28 Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium, 5,7,28,31,45,47,98 Native American Rights Fund, 21,101 Native California Network, 21 Native Hawaiian, See Native American( s) Native Hawaiian communities, 2,20,43 Native Hawaiian Health Care Act, 79 Native Indian Alliance Insurance Company, 63 Native- owned and -operated, 9,10,12,91, 102,103,107,108 Native programming, 28- 31,34- 35,102 Native Village sanitation, 20 Navajo, 3,4,7,28,48,53,75,98- 99,114,116 Navajo Communications Co., 98 Navajo Community College, 4,47,98 Navajo- Hopi Land Commission, 125 Navajo Nation Information Technology Office, 98 Navajo Nation Telecommunications Initiative, 97,98 Nazlini Boarding School, 53 NCAI. See National Congress of American Indians Nearnet, 61 Nebraska, 5,49 Nebraska ETV, 49 Need for a policy framework, 92- 95 Needs. See Native American( s) Negative stereotypes. See Culture Net, 25 Netnews, 25 Nevada, 48,52 New Mexico, 4,5,7,43,46,48,49,52,59,60,70,99,100, 114 New Mexico Technet, 98 New Mexico telephone survey. See Native Ameri-can( s) New York, 4,29,30,46,62,102,117 NII. See Telecommunications policy, National In-formation Infrastructure NII field hearings, 116 NIPC. See National Indian Policy Center Nonprofit organizations, 21,95 North American Indian Women's Association, 21 North Carolina, 47,48,61 North Dakota, 41,46,48,49,62,63,75,89,95 Northern Arizona University, 4,48,98,99,121 Northern Montana University, 101 Northland Pioneer Community College, 48 North Slope Borough, 3,4,14,50 Northwest Renewable Resources Center, 21 NSF. See National Science Foundation NTIA. See U. S. Department of Commerce, National Telecommunications and Information Adminis-tration NTIA Information Infrastructure Task Force, 116 NTIA Notice of Inquiry of Universal Service, 113 NTIA Public Telecommunications Facilities Pro-gram, 46,107 NTIA Telecommunications and Information Infrastructure Applications Program, 107 NYSERNet, Inc., 4,30,117 O Oahu, 37,55,79,93,108 Office of Management and Budget. See U. S. Executive Office of the President Office of New Mexico State Senator, 98 Office of Self- Governance. See U. S. Department of the Interior 166 162 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges Office of Technology Assessment, See U. S. Con-gress Office of the Governor of Montana, 100 Oglala Lakota College, 28,53 Oglala Sioux, 56- 57,75 Ojibwa Community College, 48 Ojibway/ Ojibwe, 13,28,30 Oklahoma, 4,48,63,66 Oklahoma State University, 52,101 Oneida Nation of New York, 3,4,29,62,68,102,117 Oneida Nation (online) Treaties Project. See Home page Onondaga, 30,36 Oregon, 4,5 Oregon State University, 101 Otoe- Missouria, 14 OTA. See U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment OTA Native American Resource Page, See Home page OTZ Telephone Cooperative, 10 P Pacific Islands, 13 Pacific Islanders in Communications, 3,5,7,28,45,98,119 packet- switching, 25 Partnership( s), 4,11,12,21,69,98- 99,112,116- 117 PCS spectrum license. See Telecommunications policy, Personal Communication System spec-trum license. PEACESAT, 107 Pearl River Reservation, 47 Pine Ridge High School, 53,54 Pine Ridge Reservation, 23,28,53,56 Plan( ning), 4,7,97,98- 99,107 Policy. See Telecommunications policy, Information policy, or Indian policy Policy status quo, 91,92 Polynesian Voyaging Society, 81 Population profile. See Native American( s) Prairienet. See Computer networking. President Bush, ,37,84 President Carter, 105 President Cleveland, 77 President Clinton, 73,84 President Nixon, 73,83- 84 President Reagan, 84 Privacy. See Information Policy Prodigy, 60 Project Jukebox, 30- 31 Project Vote Smart, 67 Punana Leo Hawaiian language preschool program, 24 Public awareness. See Culture R Radio, See Telecommunications technology REA. See U. S. Department of Agriculture, Rural Electrification Administration Red Lake Elementary and High Schools, 30 Regional Bell operating companies, 116 Regulatory authority. See Telecommunications policy Repression. See Culture Republic of Palau, 121 Republic of the Marshall Islands, 121 Research, 13,120- 122 Reservation( s), 2,32,43,74,76 Rock Point Reservation, 47 Rocky Mountain Telecommunications Association, 116 Rogers State College, 48 Rural Electrification Administration. See U. S. Department of Agriculture Rural Systemic Initiatives, 52 Rural Utilities Service. See U. S. Department of Agriculture RUS. See U. S. Department of Agriculture, Rural Utilities Service S Sacred Sites. See Culture Safe Drinking Water Act, 86 Salish Kootenai College, 6,48,101 San Carlos Apache Tribe, 4,75 Satellite, See Telecommunications technology Sealaska Corp., 76 Security. See Information policy Self- determination. See Indian policy Seminole, 47,89 Sequoyah High School, 4,52 Shoshoni, 86,113 Silicon Valley, 25,59 Sinte Gleska University, 52 Sioux, 5,47,113 Sisseton- Wahpeton Sioux Tribe Telecommunica-tions Committee, 69,97 Skagit Indian Reservation, 64 Small Business Administration, 104,105 Smithsonian Institution, 105 Software. See Telecommunications technology Solidarity Foundation, 21 South Dakota, 4,10,23,28,46,49,52,53,56,63,104 Southwest Museum, 34 Sovereignty. See Indian policy Space Technology Applied to Rural Papago Ad-vance Health Care, 56 Spirituality, See Culture Standing Rock College, 48 167 Index | 163 Stanford University, 59 Suicide rate. See Native American( s) Supply and demand, 64,91 Swinomish Indian Reservation, 64 Syracuse University, 121 Systems. See Telecommunications technology T Taos Telecommunity. See Computer networking Telecommunications infrastructure, 4,8,43- 44,62- 65,91,101- 103,107,118 Telecommunications policy, 6- 13,73- 90,92 Broadcast license, 87- 88 Cellular license, 88- 89 Communications Act of 1934, 111 Diversification of broadcasting ownership, 87 FCC notice of inquiry and rulemaking, 111 FCC policy on minorities, 87- 90,111 Frequency spectrum, 11,90,110 Government- to- government relationship (with regard to telecommunications), 112 Interoperability of telecommunications, 110 Joint federal- state telecommunications board, 12,92,111 National Information Infrastructure, 70,105,107 Personal Communication System spectrum li-cense, 88 Regulatory Authority, 11 Tribal self- determination (with regard to telecom-munications), 111 Tribal sovereignty (with regard to telecommu-nications), 109,112 Universal access/ service, 11- 12,92,110,113- 116 Universal Service Fund, 12,114,116 Telecommunication( s) technology, 2,17,39 Bandwidth, 43 Compact- Disc Read- Only Memory, 27- 30,41,59- 60 Digital, 10 Distance education, 44,96 Electronic Benefits Transfer, 42,66,68- 70 Electronic Date Interchange, 103 Electronic student records, 44 Genealogical Information System, 37 Geographic Information System, 26,37,43,58,60- 62 Global Positioning System, 62 Information system, 26,42 Integrated Services Digital Network, 51,60 Kiosks, 35,42,68- 70 Microwave, 115 Multimedia, 23,34,40,53- 54 Radio, 24,31,34,41,44,45- 46,87- 88,98 Satellite, 2,6,41,43,57,63,69,100,108 Software, 2,23,40 Switch 56, 60 Systems, 42- 43 Telefacsimile, 2 Telemedicine, 53- 57,97 Television, 2,5,25,31,34- 35,41,44,47,87- 88 Videoconferencing, 2,26,40,44,49,58,65- 66,80,96,100 Viewers and players, 41 Wireless, 2,41,53- 57 See also Computer networking Telnet. See Computer networking Telephone, See Telecommunications technology Telephone cooperative( s), 12 Television (stations), See Telecommunications technology Three Affiliated Tribes (Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan), 89 Tiers of Service, 8,43 Tlingit, 14,63 Tohono O'Odham, 56 Tohono O'Odham Tribe Utility Authority, 4 Traditions. See Culture Trans- Alaska Pipeline, 115 Training, 18,103 Tribal Self- Governance Demonstration Project, 67 Tribal telephone providers, 4 Tsimshian, 76 Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa, 75 Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation, 41,62,63,75 TV. See Telecommunications technology, Television U Unemployment. See Native American( s) Uniband, Inc., 62,63 Uniform Resource Locator. See Internet Unistar Entertainment, 63 United National Indian Tribal Youth, 21 United Native American Network, 5,63,64 United Native American Telecommunications, 63,64 Universal access/ service. See Telecommunications policy University of Alaska, 8,30,37,101 University of Hawaii, 4,8,36,55,96,101 University of Illinois, 121 University of Michigan, 61 University of Montana, 48 University of New Mexico, 4,98,101 University of North Dakota, 48 URL. See Internet, Uniform Resource Locator U. S. Code, 67 U. S. Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands, 13,121 168 164 | Telecommunications Technology and Native Americans: Opportunities and Challenges U. S. Congress, 4,64,82,85,95,100,103,106- 107,111-112,114- 115 Office of Technology Assessment, 2,4,11,15,48,73,90,92,95,106,109,120,121,122, 123 U. S. Constitution, 82 U. S. Customs House, 34 U. S. Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget, 14,107,108,121 USDA. See U. S. Department of Agriculture U. S. Department of Agriculture, 85,100 Extension Service, 109 Rural Electrification Administration, 104- 105,108,116 Rural Utilities Service, 4,12,92,104- 105,108,114,115,116 U. S. Department of Commerce, 85 Census Bureau, 2 Economic Development Administration, 105 National Institute of Standards and Technology, 107 National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 10,11,12,47,48,49,92,103,105,107,108- 110,115, 120 U. S. Department of Defense, Advanced Research Projects Agency, 25,25,52,98,105 Air Force Office of Scientific Research, 52 Army Corps of Engineers, 27,105 Army Research Office, 52 Office of Naval Research, 52 Tripler Army Medical Center, 55 U. S. Department of Education, 38 Office of Indian Education, 46,105 Regional educational research laboratories, 105 U. S. Department of Energy, 85 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 4,98 Los Alamos National Laboratory, 4,98 Sandia National Laboratory, 98 U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Native Americans, 10- 11,37,38,53,67,86,92,105,108- 109 Indian Health Service, 10- 11,36,62,67,69,82,92,94,98,108- 109 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 100 U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-ment, 46,105 U. S. Department of Labor Employment and Training Administration, 61 Native American Programs Division, 105 U. S. Department of the Interior, 85,100 BIA Division of Energy and Mineral Resources, 5,109 BIA Geographic Data Service Center, 5,61,109 BIA Land Titles and Records Office, 62 Bureau of Indian Affairs, 10- 11,37,67,82,92,93,98,100,104,108- 109 Bureau of Land Management, 61,105 Fish and Wildlife Service, 105 National Park Service, 26,37,85,86,105 Office of Self Governance, 66 U. S. Department of Justice, 85 U. S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration, 61,105 U. S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 55 USF. See Telecommunications policy, Universal Service Fund U. S. National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, 32 US West, 88- 89,114,120 Utah, 4,7,52,114 V Values. See Culture Videoconferencing, See Telecommunications technology Virginia, 60,70 Visible Human Project, 56 W WAN. See Computer networking, Wide Area Network Washington, 4,5,7,49,64 Washington State University, 101,121 Well- being. See Native American( s) Western Montana College, 69 Western Rural Telephone Association, 116 White Earth Reservation, 28 White House, 100 Wide Area Network. See Computer networking Wireless, See Telecommunications technology Wisconsin, 43,46,49 Women, Infants, and Children program, 42 World Wide Web. See Computer networking W. W. Keeler Complex, 4,52 Wyoming, 86 Y Year 2000 Scenario, 3,5 Yukon- Kuskokwim Health Corp., 55 Z Zuni, 59- 60 Zuni Watershed CD- ROM Project, 59 169 ---------- End of Document